. 


GIFT  OF 
Miss  J.   T.   Vinther 


c- 


HORSES 
SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


HORSES 


SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


BY 

GENERAL  WILLIAM  H.  CARTER 

UNITED  STATES  ARMY 


THE  LORD  BALTIMORE  PRESS 

THE  FRIEDENWALD  COMPANY 

BALTIMORE,   MD.,   U.   S.  A. 

IOO6 


U  £ 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1895 
BY  CAPTAIN  WILLIAM  H.  CARTER 

SIXTH  U.  S.  CAVALRY 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington 


Copyright,  1902,  by  COLONEL  VILLiAM  H.  CARTER 
ASSISTANT  ADJUTANT  GENERAL 

Copyright,  1906,  by  GENWKAI,  WILLIAM  H.  CARTER 
UNITED  STATES  ARMY 


SIFTOF 

*W- 


PREFACE  TO  THIRD  EDITION 

The  first  edition  was  published  in  1895.  At  that  time  the  ces- 
sation of  Indian  hostilities  and  consequent  absence  of  active  field 
duties  had  begun  to  change  the  old  and  familiar  conditions  of 
army  service. 

Those  officers  who  had  neither  the  experience  of  frontier  ser- 
vice, nor  the  opportunities  possessed  by  the  veterans  of  the  Civil 
War,  to  observe  the  operations  of  large  bodies  of  troops,  found 
need  of  more  detailed  instruction  in  many  branches  of  their  pro- 
fession, to  keep  pace  with  modern  progress  and  be  prepared  for 
the  emergency  of  sudden  war. 

The  service  schools  filled  much  of  this  want  and,  year  after 
year,  the  graduates  returning  to  their  regiments  with  progressive 
ideas,  gave  abundant  proof  of  the  opportunities  afforded  to  dili- 
gent and  ambitious  young  officers  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  ele- 
mentary technical  details  as  well  as  of  the  higher  branches  of 
military  education.  With  the  increase  of  the  army,  following 
recent  military  operations  in  the  various  and  widely  separated 
parts  of  the  world,  the  limitations  of  the  service  schools  com- 
pelled the  establishment  of  garrison  schools. 

The  amplification  and  fulfilment  of  the  schemes  of  Generals 
Sherman,  Upton  and  others,  who,  following  in  their  footsteps, 
and  recognizing  the  value  of  their  initial  efforts,  have  made  it  not 
only  possible  for  each  and  every  officer  to  thoroughly  qualify  him- 
self for  the  important  duties  of  his  profession  but  have  made  it 
inexcusable  for  him  not  to  do  so. 


921573 


IV  PREFACE   TO   THIRD    EDITION 

The  original  of  this  volume  was  prepared  with  a  view  to  better- 
ment of  instruction  and  a  wider  dissemination  through  the  service 
of  a  knowledge  of  some  elementary  facts  and  principles  essential 
to  the  well  being  and  efficiency  of  the  mounted  branches  of  the 
army.  Ignorance  and  neglect  of  essential  principles  have  on  many 
occasions  reduced  mounted  organizations  to  so  low  a  state  of 
efficiency  as  to  cause  an  army  to  lose  the  full  measure  of  success 
from  pursuit  after  a  hard  fought  battle. 

There  are  many  excellent  books  on  the  history,  breeding,  train- 
ing and  veterinary  treatment  of  horses  as  well  as  on  horsemanship 
in  general.  This  volume  is  not  intended  as  a  treatise  on  equita- 
tion, but  because  of  the  narrow  line  of  demarcation  and  with  a 
view  to  greater  usefulness  in  the  wider  field  into  which  it  has 
entered,  some  information  usually  found  in  books  on  horseman- 
ship has  been  introduced. 

In  this  edition  an  effort  has  been  made  to  perfect  the  work  by 
a  rearrangement  and  amplification  of  the  original  volume  and  by 
the  addition  of  matter  suggested  by  recent  experience.  It  has 
been  frequently  suggested  that  students  could  more  quickly  learn 
the  volume  if  it  were  paragraphed  as  a  manual.  This  the  author 
has  been  unwilling  to  do  because  experience  has  taught  him  that 
no  abiding  knowledge  of  such  a  subject  can  be  acquired  by  such 
means.  Many  excellent  manuals  upon  this  and  kindred  subjects 
have  been  published  in  America  and  England.  Failing  as  they 
do  to  arouse  any  interest  in  the  general  consideration  and  history 
of  the  subject,  such  manuals  are  soon  cast  aside  and  others  take 
their  places  to  meet  in  their  turn  the  same  fate. 

Photography  has  been  used  as  far  as  possible,  because  of  the 
natural  tendency  to  exaggeration  in  drawn  illustrations.  A  glos- 
sary of  terms  has  been  added  at  the  end  of  the  volume  to  facilitate 


PREFACE   TO    THIRD    EDITION  V 

an  understanding  of  the  very  important  subjects  of  conformation 
and  soundness. 

A  great  many  publications  have  been  consulted.  It  has  not 
been  practicable  to  give  proper  credit  in  each  instance,  but  a  gen- 
eral acknowledgment  is  here  made. 

The  author  records  his  deep  appreciation  of  the  facilities  for 
observation  so  courteously  afforded  him  during  his  visits  to  var- 
ious military  establishments  in  England,  Europe,  and  Japan,  and 
of  the  kindness  of  those  who  aided  and  encouraged  him  in  the 
preparation  of  the  original  volume  and  of  the  revised  editions. 

Partial  list  of  publications  consulted: 

Horses  and  Stables.     (Fitzwygram.) 

The  Exterior  of  the  Horse.     (Goubaux  and  Barrier.) 

Diseases  and  Injuries  of  the  Horse.      (Kirby.) 

Seats  and  Saddles.     (Dwyer.) 

The  Horse  in  Motion.     (Stillman.) 

Parfait  Marechal.     (Par  de  Solleysol,  Ecuyer,  MDCXI.) 

Principes  de  Dressage  et  D'Equitation.     (Fillis.) 

L'Equitation  Actuelle.     (Gustave  Le  Bon.) 

Traite  D'Hippologie.     (Jacoulet  et  Chomel.) 

Modern  Horsemanship.      (E.   L.  Anderson.) 

Training  Cavalry  Horses.     (Garrard.) 

How  to  Buy  and  Sell.     (Howden.) 

Horses  and  Riding.      (Neville.) 

Principles  of  Riding.     (John  Allen.) 

Riders  of  Many  Lands.     (Dodge.) 

Bridle  Bits.     (Battersby.) 

Practical  Horse  Shoeing.     (Fleming.) 

Records  of  the  Rebellion. 

Journal  United  States  Cavalry  Association. 

Journal  Royal  United  Service  Institution.     (British.) 


.    PREFACE   TO    THIRD    EDITION 

Reports  Quartermaster  General,  1861  to  1866. 

Report  of  Chief  of  Cavalry,  1863. 

Report  on  Diseases  of  the  Horse.     (Department  of  Agri- 
culture.) 

Report  on  Agricultural  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  the 
United  States   (Department  of  Agriculture). 

WILLIAM  H.  CARTER. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

INTRODUCTORY    i 

I.     THE  CAVALRY  HORSE  8 

II.     FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE  MECHANICALLY  CON- 
SIDERED    58 

III.  GAITS  OF  THE  HORSE 66 

IV.  BITS   80 

V.     BITTING  AND  TRAINING 107 

VI.     SADDLES     127 

VII.     SEATS 136 

VIII.     MODERN  CAVALRY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT. 159 

IX.     ENDURANCE  OF  HORSES    206 

X.     AGE  OF  HORSES  223 

XI.     THE  HORSE'S  FOOT 241 

XII.     STABLE  MANAGEMENT   258 

XIII.  VETERINARY  SUPPLIES  AND  PRESCRIPTIONS 277 

XIV.  DISEASES  AND  INJURIES 307 

XV.    FORAGE    357 

XVI.    TRANSPORTATION  OF  HORSES  BY  RAIL  AND  AT  SEA.  .  380 

GLOSSARY     402 


INTRODUCTORY. 

The  development  of  the  modern  rifle,  with  its  flat  trajectory  and 
long  range,  led  theorists  to  proclaim  that  frontal  attacks,  even  by 
infantry,  were  things  of  the  past  and  that  cavalry  must  henceforth 
be  relegated  to  reconnoissance  and  orderly  duty.  Men  high  in 
authority,  dreaming  of  future  wars,  foresaw  the  troop  horse  and 
the  army  mule  displaced  by  the  bicycle  and  automobile.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  epoch  which  notes  the  modern  de- 
velopment of  firearms,  nations  have  seen  much  of  war  in  widely 
separated  theaters  of  campaign,  and  experience  has  not  justified 
the  views  of  the  theorists. 

Armies  are  retained  in  peace  to  be  in  readiness  for  war.  So, 
in  war,  cavalrymen  reason  that  in  every  campaign  of  real  import- 
ance, there  comes  a  supreme  moment  in  battle,  or  immediately 
thereafter,  when  the  presence  of  a  well-trained  and  fit  body  of 
horsemen  is  worth  all  the  cost  of  their  maintenance  during  years 
of  peace.  This  condition  of  fitness  for  great  and  prolonged  exer- 
tion can  best  be  brought  about  by  a  general  diffusion  through  all 
grades  of  that  technical  knowledge  which  makes  each  link  of  the 
chain  fulfill  its  function. 

It  is  not  unusual  in  service  to  hear  intelligent  men,  who  have 
not  given  the  subject  much  consideration,  express  sneeringly  their 
disapproval  of  the  great  care  which  cavalry  officers  insist  shall  be 
given  to  animals  at  all  times,  yet  history  evinces  beyond  possible 
refutation  that  full  success  has  often  been  just  out  of  reach  of  an 
army  because  of  the  abuse  of  horses  by  those  who  had  failed  to 
•comprehend  some  very  elementary  cavalry  principles. 
i 


INTRODUCTORY 


Theoretical  knowledge  is  of  value  in  any  profession ;  it  comes 
with  study  and  not  by  instinct.  In  no  other  subjects  is  it  more 
necessary  to  have  theory  and  practice  go  hand  in  hand  than  in 
those  which  concern  cavalry.  Books  alone  cannot  convey  a 
knowledge  of  the  powers  and  endurance  of  commands  under 
varying  conditions  of  service. 

A  knowledge  of  horses,  saddles,  and  bridles  is  of  more  import- 
ance to  the  cavalry  officer  than  to  any  other  rider,  because  good 
bitting,  saddling,  packing,  and  riding  are  what  make  up  the 
efficiency  of  cavalry,  and  provide  for  an  economical  administration 
of  that  important  arm.  Actual  experience  on  the  march  is  the 
only  method  of  testing  the  value  of  saddles  and  other  equipments, 
and  the  capacity  of  horses  to  carry  their  riders  and  packs  without 
breaking  down. 

Even  those  familiar  with  war  have  little  appreciation  of  the 
enormous  numbers  of  horses  and  mules  required  to  replace  those 
used  up  by  armies  during  actual  field  service. 

The  Quartermaster-General  in  his  report  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1864,  says: 

"  It  appears,  therefore,  in  practice,  that  the  quartermaster's 
train  of  any  army  requires,  on  the  average,  one  army  wagon  to 
every  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  men,  and  the  animals  of  the 
cavalry  and  artillery  and  of  the  trains  will  average  one  to  every 
two  men  in  the  field." 

It  should  be  remembered  that  this  was  written  long  after  the 
extravagant  ideas  of  transportation  which  prevailed  during  the 
early  part  of  the  war  had  been  eradicated. 

Ignorance  as  to  the  great  expense  necessary  for  the  proper 
maintenance  of  cavalry  became  so  apparent  during  the  first  two 
years  of  the  Civil  War  that,  in  an  order  establishing  the  Cavalry 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

Bureau,  published  by  the  Secretary  of  War  at  the  close  of  the 
Gettysburg  campaign,  the  following  paragraph  was  inserted : 

"  The  enormous  expense  attending  the  maintenance  of  the 
cavalry  arm  points  to  the  necessity  of  greater  care,  and  more 
judicious  management  on  the  part  of  cavalry  officers,  that  their 
horses  may  be  constantly  kept  up  to  the  standard  of  efficiency  for 
service.  Great  neglects  of  duty  in  this  connection  are  to  be  attri- 
buted to  officers  in  command  of  cavalry  troops. 

"  It  is  the  design  of  the  War  Department  to  correct  such 
neglects,  by  dismissing  from  service  officers  whose  inefficiency 
and  inattention  result  in  the  deterioration  and  loss  of  the  public 
animals  under  their  charge."  . 

Under  the  circumstances  the  establishment  of  the  Cavalry 
Bureau  was  an  urgent  necessity.  It  at  once  became  a  potent  factor 
in  the  conduct  of  the  war,  systematized  and  improved  the  remount 
purchases  for  the  large  bodies  of  cavalry  in  the  field,  and 
materially  aided  in  making  possible  their  succession  of  victories 
during  the  last  eighteen  months  of  the  war. 

The  inspection  of  remounts  is  a  very  important  duty  and  the 
care  and  intelligence  with  which  it  is  performed  have  a  marked 
effect  on  the  efficiency  of  the  service.  With  proper  care  in  the 
inspection  and  purchase  of  horses,  sound  and  healthy  animals  are 
generally  procurable. 

When  bought  under  contract  the  price  paid  by  the  government 
for  horses  is  usually  fixed  by  the  lowest  bidder.  It  is  not  there- 
fore to  be  expected  that  ideal  animals  will  be  presented  for 
inspection,  but  only  such  as  the  contractor  can  procure  at  a  lower 
price  than  he  himself  receives.  There  will  be  a  few  first-class, 
many  fair,  and  a  superabundance  of  indifferent  and  mediocre 
horses  presented. 


4  INTRODUCTORY 

Those  sometimes  called  upon  to  decide  the  good  points  or 
defects  of  horses  may  not  be  naturally  endowed  with  the  peculiar 
qualifications  necessary  for  the  solution  of  the  problem.  Those 
whose  duty  may  require  them  to  perform  this  wrork,  may  by 
intelligent  observation,  education,  and  experience,  obtain  a  satis- 
factory degree  of  proficiency,  especially  if  possessed  of  natural 
aptitude  and  not  swayed  by  prejudice  and  fashion.  The  faculty 
of  judging  implies  not  only  attention  but  a  well-balanced  ability 
for  comparison. 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  every  officer  will  become  perfect  in 
so  difficult  a  matter  as  the  inspection  of  horses,  but  with  proper 
encouragement  the  service  should  be  able  to  supply  an  ample  num- 
ber of  trained  officers  to  meet  all  demands  in  peace  or  war. 

During  peace  the  manner  of  purchase  is  not  so  important, 
except  that  a  system  should  be  established  which  will  need  no 
change  in  time  of  war.  In  war  a  Remount  Bureau  is  a  necessity. 
It  should,  therefore,  be  maintained  in  peace  so  that  the  lessons  of 
war  may  not  be  lost.  It  should  be  under  charge  of  a  competent 
officer  who  should  control  the  general  policy  as  to  remounts,  and 
have  at  all  times  a  list  of  officers  and  veterinarians  qualified  and 
available  for  duty  in  the  remount  service. 

Experience  in  Europe  and  India  has  clearly  demonstrated  that 
military  horse  breeding  farms  are  enormously  expensive,  when 
the  number  of  misfit  colts  is  considered,  and  are  altogether  inade- 
quate to  meet  the  demands  of  modern  armies.  One  or  two 
European  governments  continue  to  provide  a  portion  of  the  horses 
for  their  cavalry  from  their  own  breeding  establishments  or  by 
acquiring  first  rights  of  purchase  through  the  grant  of  free  service 
of  the  stallions  retained  by  the  government  for  that  purpose. 

This  system  has  been  repeatedly  urged  for  adoption  in  America, 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

but  there  are  so  many  good  reasons  for  not  doing  so,  that  it  is  safe 
to  conclude  that  the  horses  required  for  public  service  will  con- 
tinue to  be  purchased  from  private  breeding  farms.  With  so 
unlimited  an  agricultural  country,  there  should  never  be  any  lack 
of  suitable  horses  of  any  class  for  which  there  is  an  active  demand 
at  fair  prices.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  government  to  breed 
horses  for  cavalry  purposes.  Equally  as  good,  if  not  better, 
results  may  be  obtained  by  training  a  large  number  of  officers  to 
the  duty  of  inspecting  and  selecting  the  best  animals  produced  on 
American  farms,  and  buying  them  from  breeders  whenever 
possible.  In  a  conflict  of  such  dimensions  as  the  Civil  War,  the 
number  of  animals  required  could  not  have  been  furnished  by  a 
reasonable  number  of  government  breeding  establishments. 

The  horse,  if  selected  with  care  and  properly  used,  is  capable  of 
rendering  long  and  valuable  service.  A  knowledge  as  to  how  to 
develop  his  full  capacity  for  making  hard  marches  while  still  re- 
taining his  health  and  vigor  does  not  come  intuitively,  but  as  a 
matter  of  experience  and  keen  observation.  The  merest  lout  who 
can  ride  fairly  light,  may  take  a  horse  over  an  immense  distance 
in  a  single  ride,  but  he  will,  in  all  probability,  expend  the  entire 
vital  force  of  the  animal,  and  leave  him  a  broken-down,  spiritless 
wreck  at  the  end  of  his  journey. 

There  is  an  infinite  amount  of  hardship  and  drudgery  connected 
with  service  in  the  ranks  of  any  cavalry.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  have  not  only  ability  to  ride  and  intelligence  to  reconnoiter, 
but  capacity  in  both  man  and  horse  to  sustain  long-continued  exer- 
tion of  the  most  arduous  character.  If  either  man  or  horse 
becomes  exhausted  or  loses  spirit,  the  effect  is  soon  felt  by  the 
other. 

The  trained  horse  of  the  high  school  is  not  regarded  as  the  ideal 


O  INTRODUCTORY 

animal  for  service,  but  too  great  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
value  of  the  riding  school  as  a  means  of  bringing  all  the  men  and 
horses  to  an  average  state  of  efficiency.  Some  men,  and  horses 
also,  are  very  slow  to  acquire  that  individual  instruction  which  is 
so  essential  to  correct  maneuvering  in  large  bodies. 

History  teaches  that  successful  cavalry  action,  whether  it  be 
battle,  raid,  or  strategic  march,  is  invariably  attended  with  a  loss 
of  horses  greater  than  the  corresponding  loss  of  men.  In  cam- 
paigns of  magnitude,  especially  at  distances  from  depots  which 
prevent  broken-down  animals  from  being  turned  in  for  recupera- 
tion, the  loss  must  be  replaced  by  untrained  horses.  It  is  a  recog- 
nition of  this  invariable  experience  in  the  United  States  which 
causes  the  War  Department  to  demand  that  cavalry  officers  them- 
selves shall  instruct  the  men  and  train  the  horses,  rather  than 
place  dependence  upon  riding-masters  and  remount  training 
depots.  The  great  need  in  the  American  army  is  the  develop- 
ment of  the  latent  ability  in  young  officers,  to  enable  them  to 
disseminate  through  the  various  regiments  a  more  general  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  military  horsemanship  and  horsemastership. 

The  cavalry  comprises  a  class  of  riders  from  which  a  great 
degree  of  uniformity  is  demanded.  The  necessity  arises  from  the 
existence  of  a  special  and  narrowly  defined  object  to  be  attained. 
The  possibility  of  accomplishing  it  exists  only  when  both  men  and 
horses  are  selected  with  reference  to  this  object.  Some  men  are 
born  riders,  and  if  taken  in  service  young  soon  adapt  themselves 
to  cavalry  riding.  Such  men  are  usually  of  a  peculiar  build,  which 
combines  strength  and  vigor,  with  lightness  and  dexterity,  and 
possess  that  peculiar  temperament  which  enables  them  to  train 
horses  to  perfection. 

All  men  are  not  so  gifted,  and  in  order  to  train  this  large 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

majority,  the  officer  should  acquaint  himself  with  everything  that 
pertains  to  the  horse.  The  presence  in  the  ranks  of  untrained 
riders  is  bad  in  peace  and  criminal  in  war,  but  every  army  has 
them.  In  order  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  their  ignorance,  good, 
well-fitted  saddles  and  bits  are  prime  necessities.  It  is  the  pain 
and  excitement  caused  in  young,  nervous  horses,  by  powerful  bits 
in  the  hands  of  thoughtless  or  poor  riders,  which  make  them  de- 
generate into  plungers  and  bolters.  Curb,  spavin,  broken  knees, 
and  other  injuries  may  frequently  be  traced  to  the  same  cause. 
Horses  thus  injured  are  condemned  and  sold  for  a  mere  trifle,  and 
the  indifferent  rider  is  placed  on  another  animal,  not  infrequently 
to  repeat  the  same  experience  through  ignorance. 

With  peace  conditions  and  unlimited  time  it  requires  only 
ordinary  care  to  gradually  instruct  both  men  and  horses  so  that 
large  bodies  of  cavalry  may  be  marched  and  maneuvered  with 
sufficient  accuracy  to  justify  the  expectation  of  success  in  battle. 
The  rate  at  which  remounts  must  be  supplied,  however,  when  hard 
marches,  with  insufficient  forage,  and  battle  losses  are  encoun- 
tered, makes  it  clear  that  all  the  men  must  be  taught  to  manage 
horses  untrained  for  military  purposes,  to  the  end  that  cavalry 
commands  may  perform  their  full  duty  in  active  campaign.  The 
ability  to  stick  on  a  runaway  or  bucking  horse  is  of  secondary 
importance  to  the  knowledge  of  horsemanship  which  makes  it 
possible  for  a  commander  to  maneuver  and  fight  large  bodies  of 
cavalry. 

No  more  costly  or  humiliating  lessons  were  learned  during  the 
Civil  War  than  those  relating  to  cavalry  service.  The  enthusiasm, 
patriotism,  intelligence,  and  courage  of  the  American  cavalrymen 
were  proven  on  many  fields,  but  bitter  experience  taught  them  that 
those  desirable  qualities  do  not  alone  command  success.  Training, 
discipline,  and  patient  work  are  more  potent  than  patriotism, 
coupled  with  ignorance  and  lack  of  experience. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  CAVALRY  HORSE. 

Inspection  of  Cavalry  Horses. — Remarks  on  Judging  Horses. — Nomencla- 
ture of  the  Horse.— The  Skeleton.— The  Superior  Muscles.— The  Ex- 
terior Regions. — Examination  of  the  Horse. — Relations  Between 
Dimensions  of  Certain  Parts. — Examination  in  Detail  as  to  Form. — 
The  Head ;  Neck ;  Withers ;  Shoulders ;  Back ;  Ribs ;  Chest ;  Lower 
Line  of  Chest  and  Belly ;  Fore  Legs  and  Feet ;  Hind  Quarters ;  Tail ; 
Body. — Detection  of  Lameness. — Artillery  Horses. — Examination  for 
Soundness. 

The  qualifications,  as  to  general  character,  age,  height,  and 
weight  of  animals  for  the  public  service  are  fixed  from  time  to 
time  by  the  War  Department. 

The  inspection  of  cavalry  horses  is  conducted  by  officers  and 
veterinarians  detailed  for  the  purpose.  The  knowledge  required 
by  the  inspecting  officers  is  such  as  will  enable  them  to  form  a 
correct  judgment  concerning  the  adaptability  of  the  animal  for 
service,  as  shown  by  his  breeding  and  conformation.  Only  the 
horses  which  pass  this  examination  are  submitted  to  further  scru- 
tiny of  the  veterinarians  who  make  the  detailed  examination  for 
soundness. 

Inspecting  officers  are  responsible  in  general  for  a  determination 
of  all  questions  as  to  conformation,  quality,  size,  action,  and  suit- 
ability of  an  animal  for  the  service  for  which  intended.  The 
veterinarian's  duties  relate  particularly  to  questions  of  age,  health, 
and  soundness. 

The  form  of  a  horse  determines  to  a  great  extent  his  fitness  for 
service,  and  enables  a  fair  prediction  to  be  made  as  to  his  various 
qualities,  provided  he  is  sound.  It  requires  judgment,  much 
instruction,  and  long  practice,  to  correctly  estimate  the  relative 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  9 

value  of  various  points,  and  to  determine  whether  the  good 
qualities  counterbalance  existing  or  probable  defects. 

Good  points  in  a  horse  are  not  mere  matters  of  beauty,  but 
shapes  which,  on  mechanical  principles,  are  likely  to  answer  the 
required  ends.  However,  shapes  which  may  be  objectionable  for 
one  class  of  work,  are  not  necessarily  so  for  another.  Thus  small 
"  chunky  "  or  pony-built  horses  are  better  for  work  in  the  moun- 
tains, than  larger  and  longer  coupled  horses. 

Remounts  for  cavalry  must  have  certain  qualifications,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  possession  of  sufficient  mobility  to 
execute  tactical  maneuvers  at  varying  degrees  of  speed  and  the 
ability  to  stand  hard  service  while  carrying  great  weight.  It 
should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  cavalry  horses  are 
required  to  carry  loads  on  their  backs  averaging  about  one-fourth 
their  own  weight. 

In  purchasing  thousands  of  horses  to  meet  a  great  emergency 
conformation  and  soundness  are  the  things  to  which  attention  is 
mainly  directed,  but  there  are  some  other  requisities,  however, 
which  are  absolute  essentials  in  a  saddle  horse  worthy  of  the 
name.  The  most  important  of  these  are  a  gentle  disposition ;  a 
good  mouth ;  regular  and  easy  gaits,  without  stumbling,  interfer- 
ing or  over-reaching;  courage  and  ambition,  without  being 
nervous  or  fidgety ;  of  proper  size  to  carry  the  weight,  which  for 
cavalry  service  requires  a  horse  about  fifteen  to  fifteen  and  three- 
fourths  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  950  to  noo  pounds. 

While  useless  to  search  for  perfection,  it  is  well  to  study  all  the 
points  of  the  ideal  horse,  in  order  to  promptly  recognize  them 
when  seen.  The  points  taken  together  constitute  the  form,  which 
must  not  be  confounded  with  particular  attitudes  assumed  by  the 
horse,  for  an  animal  whose  conformation  is  perfectly  adapted  to 
service,  will  frequently  assume  such  awkward  positions  while 
standing  in  a  stall,  or  at  the  picket  line,  as  to  entirely  deceive  any 
but  a  well-trained  eye. 


10 


HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


II 


The  points  of  a  horse  are  observed  more  quickly  when  he  is 
brought  beside  an  animal  selected  as  a  model.  As  soon  as  a  horse 
is  found  which  is  a  suitable  model,  he  should  be  retained  at  hand 
for  comparison. 

In  conducting  an  examination  of  horses,  he  who  possesses  a 
knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  animal  will  have 
a  great  advantage  over  one  who  does  not. 

A  general  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  the  skeleton  and 
the  superficial  layers  of  muscles  is  very  desirable,  but  it  is  not  at 
all  necessary  for  ordinary  purposes  to  burden  the  mind  with  the 
names  of  all  the  bones  and  muscles. 

Figure  I  represents  the  celebrated  racehorse  "  Eclipse,"  pro- 
nounced by  high  veterinary  authority  to  be  perfect.  The  form 
of  the  skeleton  is  indicated  in  outline.  The  nomenclature  of  the 
skeleton  is  as  follows : 


1.  Zygomatic  arch.  24. 

2.  Eye  cavity.  25. 

3.  Face  bones.    ,  26. 

4.  Incisor  teeth.  27. 

5.  Molar  teeth.  28. 

6.  Lower  jaw.  29. 

7.  Atlas,  ist  vertebra  of  neck.  30. 

8.  Axis,  2d  vertebra  of  neck.  31. 

9.  Cervical  vertebrae  (5).  32. 
10.  Spinal  processes  of  back.  33. 
n.  Dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae.        34. 

12.  Sacrum.  35. 

13.  Tail  bones.  36. 

14.  Shoulder  blade.  37. 

15.  Acromion  process.  38. 

16.  Hollow  of  shoulder  blade.  39. 

17.  Upper  end  of  arm  bone.  40. 

18.  Arm  bone  or  humerus.  41. 

19.  Elbow  bone.  42. 

20.  Cartilages  of  the  ribs.  43. 

21.  Ribs.  44. 

22.  Haunch.  45. 

23.  Haunch  bone. 


Great  trochanter. 

Small  trochanter. 

Thigh  bone. 

Ischium. 

Radius  or  fore-arm  bone. 

Carpal  or  knee  bones. 

Trapezium. 

Cannon  bone. 

Pastern  bone. 

Sesamoid  bone. 

Small  pastern  bone. 

Upper  end  of  leg  bone. 

Stifle  joint. 

Leg  bone  or  tibia. 

Point  of  hock. 

Hock  joint. 

Head  of  small  metatarsal  bone. 

Cannon  or  metatarsal  bone. 

Coffin  bone. 

Fetlock  joint. 

Patella,  or  stifle. 

Fibula. 


12  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

Figure  2  shows  the  exterior  muscles  of  the  horse  as  they  appear 
with  the  skin  of  the  animal  removed.  Some  of  the  deep-seated 
and  powerful  locomotive  muscles  are  not  shown,  and  the  one  over 
the  ribs  is  omitted.  The  names  of  the  muscles  are  all  of  a 


Figure  2.     Superior  Muscles  of  the  Horse. 


technical  character  to  indicate  location,  or  action,  and  are  omitted 
because  knowledge  of  them  is  only  necessary  for  a  scientific  study 
of  the  physiology  of  the  horse. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  13 

The  principal  muscle  for  consideration  in  the  figure  is  the  long 
muscle,  or  system  of  muscles  of  the  back.  It  fills  the  angular 
space  on  each  side  of  the  spinous  processes,  giving  roundness  to 
the  back.  It  is  very  broad  and  thick  over  the  loins,  and  in  addition 
to  other  connections,  it  is  strongly  attached  to  the  hip  bone.  It  is 
attached  forward  to  all  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae,  as  far  as  the 
neck,  and  to  a  strong  tendon-like  membrane  that  is  firmly  fastened 
to  the  same  bones.  Special  interest  attaches  to  this  muscle  and 
tendon,  because  the  saddle  must  rest  upon  it  in  such  a  way  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  muscular  action  of  the  fore  and  hind  quarters. 

Figure  3  is  numbered  so  as  to  locate  the  external  regions  of  the 
horse.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  commit  to  memory  this 
nomenclature  in  order  to  describe  horses  as  well  as  to  understand 
what  is  referred  to  by  others  when  mentioning  the  parts. 

The  nomenclature  of  these  parts  is  given,  as  far  as  possible,  in 
plain  language,  but  some  technical  names  are  used  because  there 
are  no  popular  names  for  the  parts  thus  mentioned. 

If  many  horses  are  to  be  examined,  copious  notes  should  be 
retained  by  the  inspecting  officer  for  self-protection,  and  every 
horse  passed  should  be  branded  with  a  number  on  the  hoof  for 
identification  on  the  descriptive  list,  and  also  have  the  brand 
•common  to  all  public  animals  put  on  in  the  presence  of  the  inspec- 
tors at  the  close  of  each  day's  work.  The  descriptive  lists  should 
be  prepared  without  delay  and  should  be  an  accurate  transcription 
from  the  notes  made  as  each  horse  is  branded. 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


Figure  3.     External  Regions  of  the  Horse. 


Nomenclature  of  the  External  Regions  of  the  Horse. 


I. 

Lips. 

I31 

Mane. 

27. 

Testicles. 

40. 

Thigh. 

2. 

Nose. 

14. 

Jugular 

28. 

Shoulder 

41. 

Stifle. 

3- 

Face. 

channel. 

and  arm. 

42. 

Buttock. 

4- 

Forehead. 

IS- 

Chest. 

29. 

Elbow. 

43- 

Gaskin. 

5- 

Eyebrows. 

16. 

Withers. 

30. 

Forearm. 

44- 

Hock. 

6. 

Forelock. 

17. 

Back. 

31- 

Chestnut. 

45- 

Chestnut. 

7. 

Ears. 

18. 

Ribs. 

32. 

Knee. 

46. 

Cannon  or 

8. 

Lower  jaw. 

19. 

Girth. 

33- 

Cannon  or 

shank. 

9. 

Cheek. 

20. 

Loins. 

shank. 

47- 

Fetlock  joint. 

10. 

Nostril. 

21. 

Croup. 

34- 

Fetlock  joint. 

48. 

Fetlock. 

ii. 

Poll. 

22. 

Tail. 

35- 

Pastern. 

49- 

Pastern. 

ii1 

Throat. 

23- 

Dock. 

36. 

Coronet. 

50. 

Coronet. 

12. 

Parotid 

24. 

Flank. 

37- 

Foot. 

Si- 

Foot. 

gland. 

25- 

Belly. 

38. 

Fetlock. 

13- 

Neck. 

26. 

Sheath. 

39- 

Haunch. 

THE   CAVALRY    HORSE  15 

Descriptive  lists  of  public  animals  should  set  forth  the  age,  sex, 
color,  distinguishing  marks,  the  weight  when  specified  in  the 
contract,  and  all  blemishes  which  include  saddle  and  collar  marks, 
wire  cuts,  scars,  splints,  and  abnormal  enlargements.  Distin- 
guishing marks  include,  ordinarily,  the  "  star,"  a  white  spot  on  the 
forehead ;  the  "  blaze,"  a  white  stripe  running  down  the  face  to 
the  lips ;  the  "  snip,"  a  white  streak  or  spot  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  face  near  the  nostrils ;  "  stockings,"  as  white  legs  on  other  than 
grey  horses  are  called ;  "  white  feet,"  which  covers  those  cases 
where  the  white  does  not  extend  above  the  fetlock ;  color  of  mane 
and  tail,  designated  "  black  points,"  "  silver,"  or  whatever  color 
exists  different  from  that  of  the  animal.  Where  the  color  of  the 
mane  and  tail  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  animal,  it  may  be  entered 
as  "  self  color,"  or  by  citing  the  actual  color. 

It  may  happen  at  times  that  officers  will  be  called  upon  to 
examine  horses  without  the  assistance  of  a  veterinary  surgeon. 
The  "  examination  for  soundness  "  and  the  chapter  on  the  more 
common  diseases  and  injuries  will  give  sufficient  knowledge  to 
conduct  fairly  well  the  examination  for  soundness,  provided  the 
information  contained  therein  is  systematically  applied  to  the  cases 
available  for  observation  in  service  from  day  to  day. 

It  is  usually  quite  easy  for  an  experienced  inspector  to  deter- 
mine generally  whether  a  horse  is  in  good  health  or  the  contrary. 
In  health  the  attitudes  assumed  when  standing  are  easy  and 
natural ;  the  coat  is  lustrous ;  in  motion  the  gaits  are  regular  and 
active ;  the  head  is  carried  rather  high  than  low ;  respiration  is  full 
and  calm. 

A  sick  horse,  or  one  suffering  from  injury,  shows  something 
is  wrong  by  his  unnatural  attitudes ;  dull  coat ;  inattention ;  hang- 


i6 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


ing  of  the  head ;  manner  of  changing  positions  ;  irregularity  of  and 
halting  manner  in  executing  the  gaits ;  in  some  cases  very  listless 
and  indifferent,  in  others  uneasy.  If  lame  from  a  wound  or  bruise 
he  will  endeavor  to  ease  up  on  the  leg  affected.  In  fact  the  horse 
will  show  in  a  great  many  ways  that  something  is  wrong. 


Figure  4. 
Pointing  a  Toe. 


Figure  5. 
Pointing  a  Toe. 


If  unable  to  decide  upon  any  question  arising  during  the  exami- 
nation, the  government  should  be  given  the  benefit  of  the  doubt. 

Whenever  possible  to  see  animals  in  their  own  stalls,  it  should 
be  observed  whether  or  not  they  kick,  which  may  usually  be  dis- 
covered by  shoe  scars  on  the  heel  posts  and  sides  of  the  stall ;  or 
if  they  crib,  a  term  used  to  describe  the  gnawing  of  the  wood 
work  about  the  mangers  and  feed  boxes. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


If  a  horse  points  a  toe,  or  shows  other  signs  of  weakness  or 
lameness,  it  can  be  more  easily  discovered  at  this  time  than  when 
crowded  in  public  stables  or  sheds  with  large  numbers  of  other 
horses.  By  "  pointing  a  toe  "  is  meant  the  act  of  resting  a  fore 
foot  on  its  toe,  or  holding  a  fore  foot  forward  to  remove  the 
weight  of  the  body  from  it  (figures  4,  5,  and  6). 

A  sound  horse  shifts  his  weight,  to  rest, 
from  one  hind  foot  to  the  other,  but  rarely 
does  this  with  his  fore  feet.  It  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  an  almost  invariable  rule  that  a 
horse  never  tries  to  rest  a  fore  foot  unless 
there  is  lameness  or  disease.  Lameness  may 
arise  from  having  been  recently  pricked  in 
shoeing,  but  under  no  conditions  should  a 
horse  be  passed  for  cavalry  service  which,  at 
the  time  of  inspection,  does  not  stand 
squarely  upon  both  fore  feet. 

Few  of  the  stable  vices  can  be  cured,  and 
unless  horses  are  badly  needed  for  im- 
mediate field  service,  animals  known  to 
have  them  should  be  rejected.  Some  stable 
vices  may  be  acquired  from  other  horses, 
and  it  is  therefore  very  desirable  to  avoid  in- 
troducing into  cavalry  stables  animals  which  may  spoil  others  com- 
pelled to  stand  near  them.  In  addition  to  kicking  and  cribbing, 
which  are  about  the  worst  habits  a  troop  horse  can  have,  may  be 
mentioned  weaving  or  the  swaying  motion  so  common  to  caged 
animals,  continued  pawing,  pulling  back  when  tied,  biting,  and 
wind  sucking.  The  wind  sucker  takes  hold  of  the  wood  work, 


Figure  6. 
Pointing  a  Toe. 


l8  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

picket  line,  or  halter  strap,  arches  his  neck  and  draws  back  with  a 
grunting  noise  (figure  7). 

The  line  of  demarcation  between  blemishes  and  defects  is  some- 
times very  dim.  Under  the  first  named  come  all  abnormal 
conditions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  horse  which  do  not  affect 


Figure  7.    Wind  Sucker. 

his  serviceability,  such  as  scars  and  splints  so  placed  as  to  be  of  no 
consequence. 

Under  the  head  of  defects  come  pegged  splints  and  those  very 
close  to  the  knees,  ring  bones,  side  bones,  false  quarter,  quarter 
cracks,  sit-fasts,  and  any  trouble,  local  or  constitutional,  which 
may  tend  to  shorten  or  render  unsatisfactory  the  service  of  the 
animal.  These  will  all  be  treated  in  detail  later  for  the  guidance 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  IQ 

of  the  inspector,  as  well  as  with  a  view  to  amelioration  and  cure 
when  they  occur  in  animals  already  purchased. 

In  considering  the  subject  generally  veterinarians  have  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  many  forms  of  diseases  of  the  horse  may  be 
acquired  through  heredity.  This  is  true  in  a  sense,  but  in  most 
cases  the  parts  played  by  sires  and  dams  relate  only  to  conforma- 
tion. If  that  be  not  good  many  abnormal  conditions  may  follow, 
for  undoubtedly  horses  of  faulty  conformation  are  more  prone 
to  certain  forms  of  disease  than  are  horses  of  good  conformation. 

Horses  should  be  examined,  if  possible,  in  the  open  air.  When 
this  is  not  practicable,  an  open  passageway  or  shed  should  be 
selected,  where  plenty  of  light  may  be  had.  When  the  horse  is  led 
out,  he  should  be  examined  in  profile  from  in  front  and  behind, 
from  the  right  and  left,  and  obliquely  forward  and  backward, 
careful  attention  being  given  to  his  temperament  and  attitudes  in 
the  meantime. 

View  the  horse  in  all  possible  aspects,  to  determine  the  general 
harmony  of  his  whole  conformation.  View  the  formation  of  the 
feet  and  legs  separately  and  in  pairs ;  the  shape,  expression,  and 
size  of  the  head  generally  and  in  detail ;  the  shape  of  the  back  and 
withers,  with  reference  to  carrying  a  saddle. 

In  the  general  observation  of  the  horse,  the  eye  should  be 
trained  to  note  quickly  whether  the  forehand  and  hindhand  bear 
proper  relation  to  each  other  as  to  weight ;  whether  the  abdomen 
is  so  shaped  as  to  hold  the  saddle  by  means  of  the  cinch  alone — 
breast  straps  are  not  issued  for  cavalry  horses — ;  whether  the 
legs  are  strong  enough  for  the  combined  weight  of  the  horse  and 
trooper  with  his  equipment ;  whether  the  head  and  neck  are  of  the 


2O  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

character  likely  to  respond  readily  to  the  rider's  hand  (figures  8, 
9,  10  and  n). 


Figure  8.      Saddle  Gelding  "  Comns."      Winner  of  many  first  prizes  in 
saddle  and  high  school  classes.     Denmark  blood.     Good  model. 

The  examination  should  be  made  on  unshod  horses,  but  if 
animals  are  presented  shod,  special  attention  is  necessary  to  see 
if  shoes  have  been  put  on  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  defects. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  21 

A  good  horse  is  one  with  many  good,  few  indifferent,  and  no 
really  bad  points.  One  radically  bad  point  neutralizes  any  number 
of  good  ones.  Excess  of  power  or  development  in  one  part  of  a 


Figure  9.    Saddle  Gelding  "  Highland."    Denmark  blood.    Good  model. 

horse  may  not  only  be  useless,  because  the  strength  of  the  animal 
is  limited  by  the  weakest  point,  but  it  may  be  a  positive  source  of 
evil.  For  example,  a  strong,  powerful  forehand  is  not  an  advan- 
tage if  the  hind  quarters  are  light,  because  the  strain  on  the  hind 
legs  will  be  unduly  great.  Similarly,  if  the  fore  legs  are  weak 


22 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


they  may  suffer  from  excessive  propulsion  communicated  by 
powerful  hind  quarters,  whilst  they  might  have  lasted  a  long  time 
if  all  were  proportionately  developed.  In  a  well-formed  horse 


Figure  10.     Thoroughbred  Mare  "  Blue  Girl."     A  typical  race  horse. 

there   should   be   no   weak   point,   and   no  part   with   excessive 
development,  as  compared  to  the  other  (figures  8,  9,  10  and  n). 

Outward  forms  are  mainly  dependent  on  the  formation  of  the 
bony  skeleton.     In  a  well-bred  horse  the  tendons,  ligaments,  and 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


muscles  are  generally  in  keeping  with  the  bones ;  that  is,  large 
bones  usually  give  attachment  to  large,  powerful  muscles,  tendons, 
etc.  The  processes  of  the  bones  are  better  developed,  and  give  a 


Figure  n.     Fine  type  of  Arab  saddle  horse  of  famous  family. 

greater  mechanical  advantage  to  the  muscles  than  in  the  case  of 
common  country  horses.  Without  good  structural  formation 
strength  will  not  be  found,  and  even  with  it,  all  the  desirable 
qualities  should  not  be  expected. 


24  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  power  of  a  horse  increases  with  his  size,  provided  the  rela- 
tive proportion  of  the  parts  and  the  general  compactness  are 
maintained.  This,  however,  is  rarely  the  case.  There  is  a 
certain  size  beyond  which  the  parts  do  not  seem  to  grow  in  due 
proportion  to  each  other.  Very  large  horses  are  seldom  fit  for 
saddle  purposes;  on  the  contrary  ponies  are  often  great  weight 
carriers. 

There  are  some  relations  between  parts  of  the  horse  which  it  is 
well  to  consider  as  an  aid  in  training  the  eye.  In  this  way  it  may 
be  decided  at  a  glance  if  a  horse  approaches  the  average  form 
accepted  as  most  suitable  for  service. 

The  horse  shown  in  figure  12  has  a  well-earned  reputation  as  a 
weight  carrier  and  long  distance  cavalry  horse.* 

The  position  is  not  constrained;  it  is  the  natural  and  free 
position  assumed  by  the  horse  without  assistance  or  interference. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  frontal  line  of  the  head  is  nearly  or 
quite  parallel  to  the  slope  of  the  shoulders.  Taking  the  head, 
measured  from  the  poll  to  the  extremity  of  the  upper  lip,  as  a  unit, 

*The  horse,  "  Deadwood,"  pictured  in  figure  12,  was  purchased  at  five 
years  of  age,  and  after  eight  years  of  service,  although  very  fat,  appeared 
perfectly  sound  and  moved  at  a  walk,  trot  and  gallop  without  stiffness 
or  peculiarities  of  gaits. 

He  was  ridden  by  the  orderly  for  the  quartermaster  of  the  Eighth 
Cavalry  on  the  march  from  Fort  Davis,  Texas,  to  Fort  Meade,  South 
Dakota,  in  1887,  a  distance  of  about  nineteen  hundred  miles.  As  the 
orderly  accompanied  the  quartermaster  in  looking  for  camping  ground, 
purchasing  forage,  and  riding  back  and  forth  to  the  wagon  train,  it  is  a 
low  estimate  to  place  the  distance  covered  by  this  animal  at  twenty-five 
hundred  miles.  He  has  performed  duty  in  field  and  garrison  and  won  new 
laurels  for  hard  service  in  the  Philippines ;  he  has  undoubtedly  been  enabled 
to  do  this  because  his  form  is  so  well  adapted  to  the  weight-carrying  re- 
quirements of  cavalry  service. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  25 

it  will  be  found  to  enter  as  a  factor  quite  accurately  into  several 
important  measurements.  The  head  should  be  measured  as  a 
shoemaker  does  the  foot,  and  not  with  a  tape-line. 

This  length  of  the  head  AB  is  almost  exactly  equal  to  the 
distance:     I.  From  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the  point  of  the 


Figure  12.     Relative  Proportions. 

shoulder  CD;  2.  From  the  lowest  point  of  the  back  to  the 
abdomen  EF ;  3.  From  the  point  of  the  stifle  to  the  point  of  the 
hock  //;  4.  From  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  lower  line  of  the 
hoof  JK;  5.  From  the  shoulder  blade  to  the  point  of  the  haunch 
LM. 


26  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Two  and  one-half  times  the  head  gives:  I.  The  height  of  the 
withers  C  above  the  ground;  2.  The  height  of  the  top  of  the 
croup  above  the  ground ;  3.  Very  nearly  the  length  from  point  of 
the  shoulder  to  point  of  buttock  DH. 

Do  not  expect  every  horse  to  fill  these  conditions,  but  remember 
that  a  small  fraction  of  the  length  of  the  head  added  to  his  height 
or  length,  will  at  once  give  the  animal  an  abnormal  appearance. 
The  length  or  height  of  a  horse  will  seldom,  if  ever,  equal  three 
head  lengths.  Perfection  of  form  is  usually  found  to  a  greater 
extent  in  horses  under  fifteen-and-a-half  hands  high,  than  in  those 
of  greater  height. 

If  proportions  are  satisfactory,  examine  the  muscles  in  a  general 
way  to  form  an  estimate  as  to  the  probable  endurance  of  the 
animal.  Firm,  dense,  compact,  and  clearly  defined  muscles  are 
requisite  for  weight  carriers. 

The  examination  should  next  take  a  more  detailed  character, 
remembering  always,  that  although  racehorses  may  run  and  win 
in  all  forms,  cavalry  service  demands  a  marked  degree  of  uni- 
formity of  conformation,  and  the  higher  the  grade  of  excellence 
secured  the  more  economical  and  enduring  will  be  the  results. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  examination,  the  age  and  height  of 
the  animal  should  be  ascertained,  to  determine  whether  these  come 
within  the  limits  specified  in  each  contract  or  letter  of  instructions. 
In  making  the  detailed  inspection  it  is  customary  to  begin  with  the 
head. 

The  Head. — The  head  should  be  small  and  well  set  on  the  neck ; 
ears  small,  thin,  and  erect ;  forehead  broad  and  face  straight ;  eyes 
large,  prominent,  mild  in  expression,  and  with  fine  eyelids ;  vision 
perfect ;  lips  thin  and  firmly  compressed ;  nostrils  large  and  open ; 
the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  wide  apart  where  the  head  is 
attached  to  the  neck. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  2? 

When  carefully  observed,  a  great  variation  is  seen  to  exist  in  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  heads  of  horses.  A  wide  forehead  is  nearly 
always  accompanied  by  large  nostrils,  well  situated  eyes,  ears 
small  and  widely  separated,  distance  from  the  eye  to  the  angle  of 
the  jaw  great,  large  space  under  and  between  the  jaws,  head  short 
and  not  of  great  volume.  On  the  contrary,  a  narrow  forehead 
is  accompanied  generally  by  small  nostrils,  eyes  but  partly  open 
and  appearing  small,  ears  large  and  close  together,  and  with  but 


Figure  13.     Roman  Nose.  Figure  14.     Straight  Face.     Fine  Head. 

small  space  under  and  between  the  jaws.  The  head  first  described 
is  the  one  best  adapted  to  the  saddle  horse,  for  the  second  or  coarse 
head  acts  like  a  heavy  weight  at  the  end  of  a  long  lever,  bringing 
forward  the  center  of  gravity,  and  making  the  horse  heavy  in 
hand. 

The  frontal  line  of  the  head  may  be  convex,  making  a  "  Roman 
nose"  (figure  13);  straight,  which  is  the  usual  and  best  form 
(figure  14);  or  concave,  making  a  "dish  face"  (figure  15). 


28  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

Many  excellent  horses  are  found  with  "  Roman  noses,"  although 
this  class  usually  has  a  reputation  for  being  heavy  in  hand  and 
sometimes  headstrong. 

The  nostrils  should  be  large,  and  occupy  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
lower  part  of  the   facial   structure,  because  the  horse  breathes 


Figure  15.     Dish-Faced. 

entirely  through  his  nostrils,  and  not  partially  through  his  mouth 
as  man  does.  The  lower  part  of  the  head,  including  the  nostrils 
and  lips,  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  muzzle. 

The  ears  should  be  delicate  and  pointed,  and  should  move  back- 
ward and  forward  with  a  quick,  firm  motion,  without  the  least 
appearance  of  flabbiness.  The  temper  of  the  horse  may  be  judged 
somewhat  by  the  eyes  and  ears. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  2Q 

Figures  14  and  16  represent  two  entirely  different  types  of  good 
heads.  The  first  is  the  head  of  a  very  fine  saddle  animal,  charac- 
terized by  docility  and  intelligence,  and  perfection  as  to  gaits. 
The  second  has  an  unusual  depth  from  the  eye  to  the  point  of  the 
jaw,  and  the  depression  in  the  frontal  line  known  as  "  dish-faced." 

The  Neck. — The  neck  should  be  of  medium  size  and  moderate 
length,  tapering  toward  the  head,  with  its  upper  border  or  crest 
longer  than  the  under  side,  and  with  mane  intact  and  fine. 


Figure  16.     A  Good  Head,  with  slight  "  Dish  Face." 

The  neck  should  be  examined  as  to  its  form,  carriage,  and  mode 
of  attachment  to  the  head.  The  neck  is  called  straight  when  its 
borders  are  rectilinear  (figure  17)  ;  arched,  when  its  upper  border 
is  more  or  less  convex  throughout  (figure  18)  ;  ewe-necked,  when 
its  upper  border  is  concave  (figure  20). 

The  long  neck  accords  well  with  extreme  speed,  the  short  neck 
with  power,  and  the  medium  neck  for  all  around  saddle  purposes, 
and  in  which  class  there  is  a  wide  range  of  intermediate  forms. 
Very  long  necks  are  too  mobile,  while  very  short  ones  are  not 
supple  enough.  Very  long  necks  also  have  the  disadvantage  of 


30  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

over-weighting  the  forehand  of  cavalry  horses  by  bringing  for- 
ward the  center  of  gravity.  The  volume  of  the  neck  should  not 
be  too  large.  A  fine,  silky  mane  characterizes  a  well-bred  horse ; 
and  a  coarse,  long,  and  stiff  mane  usually  denotes  a  common  horse. 


Figure  17.     Standard  Bred  Morgan  Mare.     Straight  neck  and  back; 
low  withers. 


The  Withers. — The  withers  comprise  the  region  between  the 
shoulders  in  front  of  the  back,  and  should  be  elevated  but  not'  high 
and  thin.  As  many  of  the  muscles,  ligaments,  and  tendons  which 
control  the  motion  of  the  forehand  are  attached  here,  some  degree 
of  elevation  is  necessary  in  order  to  afford  good  leverage,  as  well 
as  to  give  due  length  to  the  shoulder  (figure  18). 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  31 

Elevated   withers  are   usually   accompanied   by   long,   sloping 
shoulders   and   a   rather    deep   chest.     Horses    with   very   high 


Figure  18.    Good  Head,  Neck,  Shoulders,  and  Fore  Legs. 
Proper  Elevation  of  Withers. 

withers,  while  pleasant  to  ride,  are  unsuited  for  hard  service  with 
packed  saddles.  High,  thin  withers  are  usually  accompanied  by 
flat  muscles  about  and  in  rear  of  the  shoulder  blade,  where  the 


32  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

front  end  of  the  side  bars  of  military  saddles  are  intended  to  rest ; 
this  flatness  allows  the  saddle  to  slip  unduly  forward,  which  is 
very  objectionable  (figure  19). 


Figure  19.  This  Troop  Horse  was  possessed  of  a  good  carriage  until 
completely  broken  down;  is  a  good  example  of  overlooking  grave  defects 
because  of  one  or  two  good  points ;  high,  thin  withers ;  deficient  back  and 
loin  muscles;  "tucked  up"  abdomen;  "tied  in"  below  knees;  insufficient 
bone  in  legs. 

Horses  with  low  withers,  not  well  defined  or  outlined,  are  not 
suited  for  heavy,  packed  saddles,  because  such  a  formation  permits 
the  saddle  to  slip  forward  and  bruise  the  parts  near  the  top  of  the 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


33 


shoulder  blade,  and  this  displacement  also  causes  sores  to  be  made 
by  the  cinch  close  to  the  fore  legs  (figure  17). 

The  Shoulders. — The  shoulder  of  the  saddle  horse  should  be 
sloping,  well  muscled,  and  comparatively  long  (figures  8,  9,  10,  11 


Figure  20.     Ewe  Neck ;    Excessively  High  Withers. 

and  18).  If  the  shoulder  blade  is  long,  broad,  and  well  sloped,  the 
saddle  will  sit  properly  in  its  place ;  while  if  short  and  upright,  the 
saddle  will  have  a  tendency  to  work  forward  on  the  withers. 
Upright  or  straight  shoulders  are  very  undesirable  in  saddle 
horses,  although  perfectly  suitable  for  purposes  of  draught.  Un- 
3 


34  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

due  thickness  through  the  shoulders  increases  the  weight  of  the 
forehand,  and  consequent  wear  on  the  fore  legs,  without  any 
compensating  advantages  in  the  case  of  a  saddle  horse. 

While  all  authorities  agree  that  a  sloping  shoulder  is  essen- 
tial in  a  good  saddle  horse,  and  many  speak  of  it  in  an  off- 
hand way,  it  will  be  found  most  puzzling  to  determine  exactly 
how  to  class  shoulders  in  fat  horses. 

If  the  shoulder  is  straight,  and  the  horse  be  otherwise  accept- 
able, the  best  plan  is  to  mount  him;  if  he  is,  as  he  ought  to  be 
with  such  a  shoulder,  very  rough,  he  should  be  rejected  for  saddle 
purposes. 

The  Back. — The  back  should  be  short,  straight,  and  well 
muscled.  Backs  are  classed  as  straight,  roach-back  (convex), 
or  sway-back  (concave).  The  straight  back  is  a  sign  of 
strength,  and  with  this  conformation  the  saddle  will  rest  in  a 
good  position.  The  roach-back,  while  strong,  is  unsightly  and  not 
adapted  to  free  and  rapid  motion.  The  sway-back  may  be  con- 
genital or  acquired,  and  is  the  most  faulty  of  all  for  saddle  pur- 
poses, because  the  weight  is  almost  entirely  sustained  by  the 
ligaments,  and  the  saddle  is  certain  to  bore  into  the  muscles  of 
the  back. 

Short,  straight  backs  are  the  strongest  for  weight  carriers,  but 
a  certain  amount  of  length  is  essential  both  for  speed  and  jump- 
ing ;  moreover  a  horse  with  a  very  short  back  is  apt  to  overreach. 

Sometimes  the  line  of  the  back  is  higher  behind  than*in  front, 
and  sometimes  higher  in  front  than  behind.  These  forms  entail 
an  unequal  distribution  of  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  four 
extremities. 

The  Ribs. — The  ribs  should  be  well  arched  and  definitely  separ- 
ated. This  curvature,  taken  with  full  development  of  length,  and 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


35 


definite  separation  from  each  other,  constitute  desirable  points  of 
excellence. 

Flatness,  shortness,  and  near- 
ness together  are  undesirable,  be- 
cause they  limit  the  volume  of 
the  chest,  and  characterize  the 
horse  as  short-winded  and  de- 
ficient in  power. 

The  Chest.— The  chest  com- 
prises the  forward  part  of  the 
body  which  incloses  the  heart 
and  lungs.  The  chest  proper  ex- 
tends back  to  a  line  drawn 
around  the  body  crossing  the 
back  some  distance  in  rear  of  the 
withers  and  passing  underneath 
forward  of  the  belly.  The  front 
of  the  chest  is  commonly  called 
the  breast.  The  chest  should  be 
full,  deep,  moderately  broadband 
plump  in  front.  Narrow-chested 
horses  lack  endurance ;  such 

animals  usually  spread  their  feet  wide  apart  to  maintain  their 
equilibrium  even  when  standing  still  (figure  21). 

The  capacity  of  the  lungs  is  marked  by  the  size  of  the  chest  at 
the  girth.  While  excessive  width  in  front  is  hot  desirable  for 
rapid  gaits,  such  form  is  well  adapted  to  carrying  great  weight. 
The  fore  legs  should  spring  from  the  chest  perpendicularly,  as 
viewed  from  in  front  (figure  22). 


Figure  21.     Narrow  Chest  indi- 
cates lack  of  endurance. 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


Lower  Line  of  Chest  and  Belly. — From  a  point  just  in  rear  of 
the  elbows  the  lower  line  of  the  chest  and  belly  should  be  nearly 

or  quite  horizontal.  If  the 
belly  be  large  and  hang  down 
the  horse  will  not  be  fit  for 
any  but  slow  work.  The  tend- 
ency of  such  a  form,  when  the 
animal  is  used  for  saddle  pur- 
poses, is  to  work  the  cinch  or 
girth  forward  against  the  el- 
bows and  cause  cinch  sores  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  chest; 
there  is  also  a  tendency  of  the 
saddle  to  move  forward  on  the 
withers. 

If  from  want  of  proper 
length  and  curvature  of  the 
ribs  the  circumference  of  the 
body  decreases  rapidly  from 
the  forehand  to  the  rear  (fig- 
ure 19),  the  horse  presents 
the  condition  known  as  "  tuck- 
ed up  "  in  the  belly.  The  tend- 
ency in  this  case  is  for  the 
cinch  and  saddle  to  slip  back 
unless  breast  straps  are  used. 
Such  horses  are  very  unsatis- 


Figure  22.    Front  \ 
"  Deadwood." 


factory  and  no  amount  of  otherwise  good  qualities  compensates 
for  this  defective  girth  in  a  cavalry  horse.  This  form  of  horse 
is  lacking  in  aptitude  for  retaining  flesh  under  short  rations  and 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  37 

hard  work,  conditions  which  almost  invariably  attend  cavalry  on 
active  service. 

The  Fore  Leg. — The  fore  leg  should  be  vertical  and  properly 
placed ;  the  elbow  prominent  and  clear  of  the  chest ;  the  forearm 
large  above,  long  and  heavily  muscled.  The  upper  bone  of  the 
leg  should  be  long  in  proportion  to  the  lower  or  cannon  bone. 
This  bone  cannot  well  be  too  large  or  too  fully  supplied  with 
muscles.  When  the  horse  is  examined  in  profile  this  bone  should 
be  vertical,  and  when  viewed  from  in  front,  parallel  to  the  median 
plane  of  the  body. 

The  knee  should  be  wide  from  side  to  side,  and  thick  from  before 
to  behind.  The  vertical  direction  of  the  upper  bone,  and  cannon 
or  lower  bone,  should  be  maintained  at  the  knee  (figures  18  and 
22). 

A  condition  known  as  "  over  in  the  knees  "  or  "  knee  sprung  " 
generally  results  from  over  work  and  strain ;  it  may  be  congenital, 
and  therefore  not  an  unsoundness,  but  a  horse  with  that  con- 
formation is  not  desirable  for  service  (figure  23). 

The  opposite  condition,  known  as  "  buck "  or  "  calf "  knees, 
is  decidedly  objectionable,  owing  to  the  undue  strain  brought  on 
the  ligaments  and  tendons. 

The  leg  just  below  the  knee  should  not  be  very  small  or 
"  tied  in,"  which  indicates  a  weakness  of  the  part,  but  should  be 
as  large  as  the  other  portions  of  the  limb  in  that  vicinity.  The 
back  tendons  should  run  parallel  to  the  cannon  bone  and  not 
adhere  closely  just  below  the  knee.  If  the  bone  at  the  back  of  the 
knee — trapezium — is  not  prominent,  the  objectionable  conditions 
mentioned  will  be  almost  certain  to  exist  and  the  animal  cannot 
stand  hard  service  (figure  19). 

The  large  or  cannon  bone,  between  the  knee  and  fetlock,  cannot 


38  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

be  too  short  or  too  strong.     It  should  be  straight,  as  any  deviation 
from  a  straight  line  is  both  a  sign  and  cause  of  weakness. 


Figure  23.     Over  in  the  Knees  or  Knee  Sprung. 

The  pastern,  consisting  of  the  upper  and  lower  pastern  bones, 
should  be  strong,  not  too  oblique,  and  of  moderate  length.  If  the 
horse  is  standing  squarely  on  his  feet  and  a  line  be  dropped  from 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


39 


the  shoulder  opposite  the  middle  of  the  fore  leg  to  the  ground,  it 
should  strike  immediately  behind  the  hoof;  if  it  passes  forward 
of  this  point  the  pastern  is  too  upright ;  if  it  passes  to  the  rear  of 
it  the  pastern  is  too  much  sloped.  In  the  first  position  the  chances 
of  a  long  and  serviceable  career  exist;  in  the  second,  the  bony 
column  of  the  fore  leg  will  receive  all  the  concussion,  the  animal 
will  be  rough  under  the  saddle,  and  will  soon  be  disabled  by  the 


i  2  3 

Figure  24.     Slopes  of  Pastern. 

heavy  weight  of  the  rider  and  pack ;  in  the  third,  the  horse  will  be 
easy  and  pleasant  to  ride,  but  will  soon  break  down  from  strain  of 
the  ligaments  (figure  24). 

The  feet  should  be  somewhat  circular  in  shape,  of  medium 
size,  due  regard  being  had  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the  horse,  and 
there  should  be  no  visible  difference  in  the  feet  as  to  size  and 
form.  They  should  be  neither  too  flat  nor  very  upright.  The 
fore  feet  being  on  the  same  line,  the  distance  between  them  should 
generally  be  equal  to  the  width  of  one  of  the  feet. 

A  flat  foot  is  one  in  which  the  sole  has  little  or  no  convexity, 
and  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  received  on  the  entire  surface  as  it 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


rests  on  the  ground,  instead  of  on  the  hoof  wall.     Such  a  foot  is 
peculiarly   liable   to   bruises   and   corns.     The   fore   feet   appear 

broad,  low  heeled  and  with  the 
wall  less  upright  than  in  the 
normal  foot. 

Club  foot  is  a  term  applied 
to  a  foot  having  an  upright  or 
nearly  perpendicular  wall.  The 
heels  are  high,  which  throws 
undue  weight  on  the  toes.  This 
condition  is  more  common  in 
mules  than  horses.  • 

The  shape  and  size  of  the 
foot,  if  not  modified  by  disease 
or  injury,  is  a  good  indication 
of  the  character  of  the  animal 
as  well  as  of  the  locality  in 
which  raised.  The  horse 
reared  on  moist,  soft  pastures, 
has  large,  spreading  hoofs  and 
is  usually  a  lymphatic  animal, 
unsuited  to  any  but  slow 
work ;  the  horse  raised  in 
a  dry  climate  and  whose  feet 
are  small  with  dense  and  tena- 


Figure  25.     Pigeon  Toed,  or  Toes 
Turned  In. 


cious  hoofs  is  usually  a  compact  wiry,  and  vigorous  animal. 
Change  their  relative  habitat  and  in  a  few  generations  the  shape 
and  sizes  of  their  hoofs  would  be  entirely  reversed  to  meet  new 
conditions  of  nature. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


The  introduction  of  draught  blood  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
has  brought  into  the  market  a  great  many  medium-sized  horses 
with  large,  flat  feet,  which  are  almost  sure  to  deteriorate  rapidly 
when  put  to  service  on  hard  roads  at  any  but  a  slow  gait.  Horses 
whose  hoofs  are  naturally 
small  and  hard  are  better  pre- 
pared to  withstand  the  effects 
of  warm,  dry  stables,  or  long 
marches  over  rough  or  dry 
country.  They  have  less  bulk 
and  weight  to  lift  at  each  step ; 
their  action  under  the  saddle 
is  more  nimble  and  pleasant, 
and  the  pounding  received  by 
the  feet  is  not  so  apt  to  be 
severe,  because  horses  of  this 
class  usually  travel  close  to 
the  ground,  while  horses  with 
large  or  flat  feet  generally  lift 
their  feet  high.  A  contracted 
foot  should  not  be  mistaken 
for  a  naturally  small  foot. 

Some  horses  toe  in — 
"pigeon  toed"-— (figure  25) 
and  some  turn  out  their  toes  (figure  26).  Both  are  objectionable 
in  cavalry  horses.  Sometimes  a  horse  toes  in  more  with  one  foot 
than  another,  and  breaks  down  first  on  the  one  which  turns  in 
most.  The  horse  which  turns  out  his  toes  is  apt  to  "  paddle  "  with 
his  fore  feet  when  in  motion ;  and,  with  this  conformation  in  front, 
his  hocks  are  likely  to  turn  in  too  much  (figure  29). 


Figure  26.     Toes  Turned  Out. 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


The  same  remarks  as  to  size  and  condition  of  the  fore  feet  are 
applicable  in  general  to  the  hind  feet.  The  hind  feet  are  usually 
more  upright  than  the  fore  feet,  and  are  much  less  subject  to  dis- 
ease>  or  maldirection.  This  upright  condition  should  be  natural 

and  not  due  to  disease, 
which  exhibits  itself  some- 
times as  "  cocked  ankles  " 
(figure  27). 

If  the  toes  of  the  hind 
feet  show  signs  of  striking 
the  shoes  of  the  front  feet, 
producing,  in  motion,  the 
sound  called  "  clicking,"  the 
horse  will  not  be  satisfac- 
tory for  marches  at  a  trot 
under  a  heavy  weight. 

The  Hind  Quarters  Gen- 
erally.— The  loins  should  be 
broad,  short,  and  muscular. 
The  hips  should  not  be 

ragged.  Ragged  hips  are  not  only  unsightly,  but  their  prominence 
rray  be  due  to  narrowness  of  the  loins.  The  absence  of  muscular 
development  of  the  inner  thighs  known  as  "  split  up  behind  "  is  a 
sign  of  weakness  and  very  objectionable ;  the  thighs  should  be 
deep  and  well  developed,  but  with  sufficient  interval  between  to 
prevent  friction  (figure  28). 

The  stifles  should  be  prominent  and  well  defined ;  they  should  lie 
close  to  the  abdomen,  and  be  slightly  deviated  outward. 

The  hocks  should  be  neatly  outlined,  lean,  large,  and  wide  from 
front  to  rear. 


Figure  27.     Cocked  Ankles. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


43 


The  leg  below  the  hock  should  incline  but  little  if  at  all  under 
the  body ;  if  inclined  too  much  the  liability  to  strain  on  the  liga- 
ments and  tendons  becomes 
great.  If  the  leg  below  the  hock 
is  nearly  vertical,  the  conforma- 
tion is  favorable  to  speed,  be- 
cause the  foot  on  arriving  on  the 
ground  is  strongly  flexed  upon 
the  leg,  which  gives  the  hock 
energetic  impulsion,  and  admits 
of  long  strides.  If  the  lower  part 
of  the  leg  be  inclined  under  the 
body,  it  not  only  affects  the 
speed  by  diminishing  the  stride, 
but  increases  the  weight  borne 
by  the  hind  quarters,  and  causes 
a  considerable  part  of  the  mus- 
cular effort  of  impulsion  to  be 
expended  in  lifting  the  body,  in- 
stead of  carrying  it  directly  for- 
ward (figures  8  and  10). 

The  hocks  should  be  viewed 
from  behind  with  reference  to 
their  parallelism  to  the  median 
plane  of  the  body.  The  hocks 
may  turn  towards  one  another 


Figure  28.     Rear  View  of 
"  Deadwood." 


behind,  giving  the  horse  the  appearance  called  "  knock-kneed  " 
in  men,  and  "  cow-hocked  "  in  the  horse  (figure  29).  If  the  points 
of  the  hocks  are  turned  out  the  appearance  is  similar  to  "  bow 
legs  "  in  man.  Both  forms  are  objectionable  for  many  reasons. 


44 


HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


The  Tail— The  dock  or  solid  part  of  the  tail  should  be  large 
and  muscular.  The  tail  should  be  carried  firmly,  and  well  away 
from  the  hind  quarters.  The  tail  is  usually  set  on  much  higher 
and  is  more  ornamental  in  well-bred  than  in  common  horses.  The 

hair  of  the  former  is  fine ;  in  the 
latter  it  is  frequently  thick,  coarse, 
or  curly  (i,  2,  3  figure  30). 

When  the  horse  has  consider- 
able slope  at  the  croup  and  his 
tail  is  set  on  low  down  he  is  char- 
acterized as  "  goose  rumped." 
Occasionally  a  satisfactory  saddle 
horse  is  found  with  this  shape, 
but  unless  his  conformation, 
otherwise,  is  very  good,  animals 
of  this  kind  should  not  be  passed 
by  the  inspector  (3,  figure  30). 

Upon  completion  of  the  ex- 
amination of  a  horse  have  him 
led,  with  a  loose  rein,  at  a  walk 
on  a  hard  roadbed,  and  view  his 
action  from  in  front  and  behind. 
Repeat  this  at  a  trot,  viewed  as 


Figure  29.     Cow  Hocked. 


before.  Now  have  a  saddle  and 
bridle  put  on  the  horse,  and  note 
the  disposition  of  the  animal  while  this  is  being  done.  Have  a 
rider  mount  and  gallop  the  horse,  so  that  he  may  be  viewed  as  at  a 
walk  and  trot.  It  is  usual  at  his  time  to  have  the  horse  galloped 
fast  for  several  hundred  yards  to  enable  the  veterinarian  to  ex- 
amine his  respiration  and  wind. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


45 


In  examining  the  horse  in  motion  it  should  be  observed  if  his 
movements  at  all  gaits  are  regular,  free,  and  natural.  The  arti- 
ficial gaits  of  the  trained  saddle  horse  are  of  no  special  value  to 
cavalry,  for  when  animals  with  these  gaits  are  ridden  by  guides  it 
is  impossible  to  regulate  the  gaits  of  other  horses  by  them. 

It  should  be  demanded  that  the  horse  walk,  trot,  and  gallop 
without  defects  or  peculiarities  of  gaits.  If  the  horse  is  lame  in 


Figure  30. 

the  slightest  degree,  even  from  an  apparently  fresh  and  insignifi- 
cant wound,  the  examination  should  be  suspended. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  horses  with  clearly  apparent  feat- 
ures of  lameness  will  be  presented  in  that  condition  for  inspection 
and  sale  as  sound  animals.  There  are  many  obscure  cases  of 
lameness  which  may  not  be  readily  detected  during  a  cursory  or 
careless  examination.  Lameness  not  infrequently  has  an  apparent 
location  elsewhere  than  at  the  real  seat  of  trouble. 


46  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

If  a  lame  horse  be  led  by  a  loose  halter  strap  at  a  trot,  on  a  hard 
piece  of  road,  a  careful  observer  will  notice  as  he  approaches, 
passes  by,  and  recedes,  a  dropping  of  the  body  upon  one  extremity 
or  the  other.  If  the  dropping  of  the  head  or  depressing  of  the 
hip  takes  place  at  the  time  the  foot  of  the  off  (right)  side  comes 
to  the  ground,  the  horse  is  lame  on  the  near  (left)  side.  If  the 
dropping  of  the  head  or  depressing  of  the  hip  occurs  on  the  near 
(left)  side,  the  horse  is  lame  on  the  off  (right)  side. 

Having  determined  on  which  side  and  whether  it  is  in  a  fore  or 
hind  Jeg  that  lameness  exists,  it  still  remains  to  definitely  locate 
the  seat  and  cause  of  the  injury.  In  some  cases  there  may  be  no 
visible  alteration  of  the  parts  to  indicate  whether  the  lameness  is 
in  the  shoulder,  leg,  or  foot.  Heat,  flinching  from  pain,  and  swell- 
ing of  the  parts  are  the  surest  indications  of  the  seat  of  lameness. 

The  lameness  which  an  inspector  must  look  out  for  is  where  the 
horse  is  lame  in  both  fore  or  both  hind  legs,  particularly  the 
former.  If  lame  in  both  fore  legs,  the  action  of  the  horse  is 
rather  stiff  and  the  steps  shorter  than  natural.  This  condition 
generally  arises  from  founder,  navicular  disease  in  both  feet  or 
contracted  heels.  If  lame  in  both  hind  legs,  the  fore  legs  are  kept 
back  of  the  normal  position,  and  the  head  is  lowered  when  the 
animal  is  in  motion.  Backing  and  turning  are  accomplished  with 
difficulty. 

If  the  horse  throws  his  feet  out  of  the  vertical  plane  at  a  walk 
and  trot — usually  called  "  paddling  " — or  if  he  interferes  suffi- 
ciently to  cut  himself,  he  should  not  be  accepted.  A  horse  which 
interferes  when  in  good  condition  without  a  load  is  apt  to  be 
worse  when  thin  in  flesh  and  fatigued  from  packing  a  heavy 
weight  on  the  march.  The  "  paddling  "  movement  is  not  only  un- 
sightly, but  occasions  fatigue  and  an  unnecessary  waste  of  energy. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  47 

The  entire  examination  should  be  made  without  whips,  noise  or 
excitement  of  any  kind.  This  is  difficult  to  enforce  at  public 
stock  yards  and  stables,  but  should  be  insisted  upon. 

Some  horses,  apparently  sound  and  without  vice  or  fault,  will 
still  be  far  from  desirable  cavalry  horses.  If,  for  instance,  a  horse 
appears  clumsy,  especially  at  a  trot,  the  inspector  should  mount 
him  and  give  him  a  thorough  trial,  else  he  may  pass  into  the  ranks 
an  animal  whose  rough  gaits  will  cause  more  discontent  than  he 
is  worth. 

Ability  to  carry  flesh  under  short  rations  is  a  very  excellent 
quality  in  troop  horses,  for  it  not  only  enables  them  to  stand  hard 
work,  but  saves  sore  backs,  which  generally  result  when  loss  of 
flesh  destroys  the  perfect  fit  of  the  saddle.  This  aptitude  to  take 
on  and  retain  flesh  exists  in  horses  of  particular  conformation, 
with  which  cavalrymen  soon  become  familiar  in  active  service. 

Disappointment  may  come  because  an  animal  whose  form  just- 
ifies the  highest  expectations  may  prove  without  the  courage  or 
ability  to  perform  according  to  nature's  gifts,  but  there  will  be 
some  satisfaction  in  the  knowledge  that  those  whose  forms  indi- 
cated unfitness  have  not  been  made  a  burden  upon  the  govern- 
ment. 

In  examining  horses  attention  will  always  be  called  to  the  fine 
points,  of  which  most  horses  possess  some.  After  the  eye  has 
become  trained,  a  horse  whose  defects  of  detail  predominate  will 
at  once  show  a  want  of  harmony  of  the  whole.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  his  defects  are  few,  the  impression  conveyed  will  be  har- 
monious. It  is  then  only  necessary  to  determine  if  any  of  the 
defects  of  form  are  such  as  to  be  a  source  of  weakness  when  the 
horse  is  put  to  the  use  for  which  he  is  to  be  bought.  The  most 
valuable  and  competent  inspector  of  remounts  is  the  one  who  can 


48  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

quickly  and  correctly  decide  as  to  what  defects  and  blemishes  may 
be  safely  waived. 

In  all  examinations  of  animals  for  public  service,  it  should  be 
kept  in.  mind  that  endurance  is  limited  by  the  weakest  part. 
While  in  private  life  such  care  may  be  bestowed  upon  a  horse  as 
to  cause  a  weak  member  to  last  as  long  as  the  more  sound  ones, 
this  cannot  be  done  in  military  service. 

The  preceding  pages,  while  containing  many  general  remarks 
and  principles,  are  primarily  intended  to  set  forth  the  points  and 
qualities  desirable  in  a  cavalry  horse. 

The  artillery  horse  is  a  combination  of  the  saddle  and  the  draft 
horse.  The  relative  proportions  of  these  two  opposing  char- 
acteristics vary,  depending  upon  the  class  of  artillery  work  the 
horse  is  to  perform.  Thus,  in  siege  artillery,  when  the  load  is 
heavy  and  the  gait  slow,  the  draft  feature  exists  almost  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  saddle  qualities,  while  at  the  other  end  of  the  list  is 
the  horse  artillery  animal,  where  the  weight  being  comparatively 
light,  and  the  gait  frequently  fast,  saddle  qualities  must  exist  to  a 
very  large  extent,  though  not  to  the  same  degree  that  draft  pre- 
dominates in  the  siege  artillery  horse.  It  should  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  essential  qualification  in  all  artillery  horses  is 
ability  to  draw  the  carriages  to  which  they  are  harnessed,  and  that 
all  saddle  qualities  are  subordinate  to  this.  The  trot  is  the  har- 
ness gait  for  covering  long  distances  rapidly,  and  artillery  should 
be  able  to  keep  this  gait  unbroken  for  several  miles. 

The  characteristics  of  horses  for  saddle  purposes  vary  consid- 
erably from  those  for  draft.  Horses  for  draft  purposes  only  are 
much  heavier,  especially  in  the  shoulders,  moving  the  load  more  by 
their  weight  in  the  collar  than  by  muscular  exertion.  The 
shoulders  are  also  broader,  affording  a  good  bearing  surface  for 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  49 

the  collar  and  they  are  also  straighter  (less  sloping)  in  order  that 
the  line  of  draft  may  be  more  nearly  perpendicular' to  them.  The 
pasterns  are  more  upright  to  enable  the  horse  to  exert  his  strength 
without  "  digging  in  his  toes  " ;  the  neck  shorter,  heavier ;  the 
chest  is  generally  broader ;  the  hind  quarters  are  heavier ;  the 
rump  is  broader ;  the  legs  are  shorter,  and  in  general  the  horse  ; 
is  heavier  and  of  more  blocky  build  than  the  saddle  horse. 

The  grading  of  artillery  horses  into  lead,  swing,  and  wheel,  and 
attempts  to  have  distinctive  weights  and  sizes  for  each  is  now 
abandoned,  it  being  generally  recognized  that  the  best  six-horse 
team  is  that  in  which  all  the  horses  are  nearly  alike,  and  any  pair 
can  be  placed  in  any  position.  This  is  important,  for  a 
continuous  line  of  trace  from  lead  to  wheel  exists,  and  the 
nearer  all  the  horses  are  to  the  same  size,  the  nearer  this  line 
comes  to  being  a  straight  one.  On  the  other  hand,  small  horses 
in  front  of  the  large  ones  make  a  broken  line  of  trace  with  a  con- 
stant downward  pull  on  the  necks  of  the  larger  horses.  And 
again,  as  wheel  horses  are  always  working  while  in  motion,  in 
draft,  or  holding  back  down  grade,  or  turning  the  carriage,  it  is 
an  advantage  to  be  able  to  put  any  one  of  the  three  pairs  in  the 
wheel,  so  as  to  equalize  the  work. 

Notwithstanding  that  there  is  in  all  armies,  in  time  of  peace,  a 
great  demand  for  mobility  in  the  artillery,  and  therefore  lighter 
and  more  active  horses  are  called  for,  there  is  a  tendency  toward 
heavier  horses — horses  that  can  undoubtedly  draw  the  carriages  in 
spite  of  hard  work,  bad  roads,  and  small  rations. 

The  description  of  the  exterior  of  the  horse  given  herein  applies 
to  artillery  horses  also.     A  more  detailed  description  of  the  artil- 
lery horse  is  as  follows : 
4 


5O  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  best  artillery  horses  (except  siege,  which  should  average 
from  16  to  i6l/2  hands  high,  and  weight  from  1350  to  1400 
pounds)  are  about  15^  hands,  weight  about  1200  pounds  when 
in  fair  condition ;  in  purchasing  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
horses,  when  sent  to  market  usually  have  many  pounds  of  fat  on 
them.  Horses  over  this  height  are  not,  as  a  rule,  as  well  pro- 
portioned, or  else  they  are  of  defective  conformation  for  artillery. 

Long  legged,,  long  barrelled,  tucked  up  belly,  "  slab  sided  " 
(insufficient  arch  to  ribs),  narrow  chested  horses  and  those 
with  big  flat  feet  are  entirely  unsuited  for  artillery.  The  head 
should  be  proportioned  in  size  to  the  rest  of  the  animal,  and  never 
large,  coarse,  and  heavy.  The  neck  should  be  shorter  and  heavier 
than  in  the  cavalry  horse.  But  the  neck  must  not  be  so  wide  as  to 
prevent  a  good  bearing  surface  in  the  shoulder  for  the  collar,  or 
to  be  pinched  by  it.  The  ewe  neck  especially  should  be  carefully 
avoided,  as  the  collar  is  not  held  properly  in  place,  and  the  horse 
does  not  carry  his  head  so  well  as  with  either  a  straight  or  arched 
neck,  and  consequently  his  balance  is  disturbed. 

The  shoulder  is  one  of  the  principal  points  of  difference  be- 
tween saddle  and  draft  horses.  This  should  not  be  so  sloping 
as  to  cause  the  collar  to  work  up  and  choke  the  horse,  and  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  upright,  straight  shoulders  are  desired  for 
draft  horses  only,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  artillery 
horse  is  also  to  be  ridden,  and  therefore  some  slope  to  the 
shoulders  is  necessary.  A  straight  shoulder  generally  in- 
dicates a  rough  gait.  This  is  undesirable,  especially  in  horse 
artillery,  where  the  function  of  the  cannoneer's  horses  being  to 
carry  them  to  the  place  where  their  work  (firing)  begins,  it  is 
essential  that  they  should  arrive  there  fresh  and  not  in  a  worn 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE  5! 

out  condition  due  to  a  hard  gaited  horse.  On  the  other  hand,  as 
the  cannoneer's  horses  have  to  work  in  harness  in  emergencies, 
they  cannot  be  simply  saddle  animals,  but  must  possess  good  draft 
qualities.  The  shoulders  should  therefore  slope  less  than  in  the 
cavalry  horse,  but  more  than  in  the  common  draft  horse.  They 
should  be  heavy,  and  afford  a  good  bearing  surface  for  the  collar. 

The  chest  should  be  wider  than  in  the  cavalry  horse  and  plump 
in  front.  It  is  that  of  the  harnesss  or  driving  horse  rather  than  that 
of  the  saddle  animal.  The  hindquarters  should  be  heavy  and  well 
muscled ;  the  rump  should  be  wider  and  more  nearly  square  (less 
sloping  across  the  hips)  than  the  cavalry  horse.  The  legs  should 
be  shorter,  and  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  and  gaskin  prominent. 
The  distance  from  the  last  rib  to  the  point  of  the  hip  should  be  as 
short  as  possible.  The  barrel  should  be  short,  measured  along 
the  back,  but  large  in  circumference.  Such  horses,  as  a  rule,  are 
easy  keepers,  and  stand  hard  work  well. 

It  has  been  the  main  object  in  this  chapter  to  call  attention  to 
the  various  forms  of  horses,  and  explain  the  relative  value  of 
different  points.  It  is  not  always  practicable  to  have  the  profes- 
sional assistance  of  a  veterinarian,  therefore,  cavalry  and  field  artil- 
lery officers  and  quartermasters  should  be  able  to  make  an  exami- 
nation of  the  horse  for  soundness  without  assistance,  except  as  to 
certain  occult  forms  of  disease.  Th£  method  prescribed  herein 
is  in  accordance  with  the  best  practice  of  veterinarians,  and  if 
closely  followed  will  generally  give  satisfaction. 


52  HORSES,,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

EXAMINATION   FOR   SOUNDNESS.* 

1.  Examine  the  animal  as  he  stands  in  his  stall  to  see  if  he 
points  either  fore  foot,  or  favors  any  leg.     Observe  the  position 
of  the  posterior  extremities  when  standing.     Observe  whether  he 
cribs  or  bites  the  woodwork;  holds  on  to  the  manger  or  halter 
ropes  or  straps  to  suck  wind ;  bites  or  kicks ;  weaves  or  moves 
from  side  to  side  like  a  caged  animal ;  or  whether  he  exhibits  any 
glaring  unsoundness  forbidding  further  examination. 

2.  Lead  the  animal  out  into  the  light,  and  observe  if  the  pupils 
of  the  eyes  contract  evenly ;  if  not  suspect  defective  vision.     Stand 
in  front  and  compare  the  eyes,  as  to  whether  one  is  smaller  than 
the  other;  whether  there  exist  any  signs  of  an  operation  having 
been  performed;  any  signs  of  ophthalmia,  white  specks  in  the 
cornea,  torn  eyelid,  warts,  or  other  abnormal  conditions.     Wave 

*  A  committee  of  the  American  Veterinary  Medical  Association  was  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  practicability  of  establishing  a  standard  of  sound- 
ness, and  submitted  a  report  at  the  forty-first  annual  convention  in  1904. 
The  chairman  reported  the  inability  of  the  committee  to  present  anything 
in  the  way  of  definite  rules  for  a  standard  and  further  adds:  "The  subject 
is  an  exceedingly  complicated  and  difficult  one  to  handle.  The  old  English 
arbitrary  system  of  either  condemning  a  horse  as  unsound,  or  passing 
him  as  sound,  is  certainly  extremely  harsh  and  in  many  instances  unjust 
to  the  intending  purchaser,  to  the  vendor,  and  to  the  horse.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  the  committee  that  degrees  of  soundness  should  be  recognized ; 
that  is,  first,  absolute  soundness,  and  second,  serviceable  soundness.  It  is 
a  very  simple  matter  to  define  absolute  soundness  but  when  it  comes  to 
serviceable  soundness  it  is  exceedingly  difficult,  if  not  an  impossibility,  to 
set  down  any  definite  rule.  In  very  many  instances,  when  our  advice  is 
asked  as  to  the  advisability  of  purchasing  an  animal,  it  is  not  a  question 
of  soundness  at  all  but  a  question  as  to  the  usefulness  of  the  animal  for 
the  particular  purpose  intended.  The  purposes  for  which  horses  are  bought 
and  used  are  unlimited,  and  while  a  horse  may  be  serviceably  sound  for 
one  purpose  and  do  excellent  work,  for  another  purpose  he  would  be 
entirely  useless." 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


53 


the  hand  gently  to  and  fro  in  front  of  the  eye ;  if  the  animal  does 
not  instinctively  close  the  eye  upon  the  approach  of  the  hand, 
proceed  carefully  to  determine  whether  or  not  sight  has  been  lost. 

3.  Examine  the  ears  for  cuts  and  slits  made  by  sticking  the 
head  into  barbed  wire  fences.     If  the  ears  hang  flabbily,  or  do  not 
move  quickly  and  rigidly  at  intervals,  something  is  wrong;  ob- 
serve carefully  the  base  of  the  ear  and  vicinity  for  sores. 

4.  Look  the  horse  squarely  in  the  face  to  see  if  there  is  any 
abnormal  or   uneven    development   about   the    head.     Look    for 
evidences   of   ulcerated  teeth,   as   indicated   by   swelling  in   the 
vicinity  of  the  facial  sinuses  and  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  jaw, 
and  by  offensive  odors. 

5.  Open  the  animal's  mouth,  and  observe  if  all  the  teeth,  molars 
as  well  as  incisors,    are    intact.     Examine    carefully    for   parrot 
mouth,  lacerated  tongue,  abscesses,  bit  bruises  on  the  bars,  and 
the  teeth  to  determine  age. 

6.  Examine  the  nostrils  for  healthy  color,  polypi,  ulcers  indi- 
cating glanders,  and  for  offensive  discharges.     Look  for  farcy 
buds  on  the  neck  and  sides  of  the  face.     Feel  under  the  jaw  for 
enlargement  of  the  lymphatic  gland.     Examine  the  region  of  the 
parotid  gland  for  evidences  of  inflammation.     Raise  the  jugular 
vein  to  see  if  it  is  intact ;  observe  if  any  inflammation  of  the  vein 
exists. 

7.  Pass  the  hand  from  the  top  of  the  head  along  the  neck  to 
the  withers  for  evidences  of  poll  evil,  bruises,  or  fistula.     Place 
the  ear  to  the  trachea,  to  observe  if  the  sound  of  breathing  is 
clear  and  even. 

8.  Pass  to  the  near  (left)  side  of  the  animal  and  examine  the 
back  for  sit-fasts,  or  saddle  sores.     Observe  the  shoulder  for 
signs  of  wasting  away  of  the  muscles,  enlargement  of  the  joint, 


54 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


heat,  or  tenderness.  Examine  the  point  of  the  elbow  for  capped 
elbow  (figure  31).  Examine  the  near  fore  leg  with  the  hand, 
looking  at  the  off  leg  also,  for  broken  knees,  speedy  cut,  splints 
(figures  31  and  32),  side  bones,  ring  bones,  injury  from  interfer- 
ing, sand  cracks,  seedy  toe,  false 
quarter,  scratches,  grease,  wind 
galls,  heat  about  the  fetlocks  or 
coronet,  and  scars  from  wire 
fence  wounds. 

9.  Take  up  the  foot  and  ex- 
amine for  indications  of  founder, 
contraction,  quittor,  or  flatness; 
to  see  if  the  bars  have  been  cut 
away;  whether  there  is  any  of- 
fensive odor  of  the  frog,  and  to 
see   if  there   is   any   peculiarity 
about  the  shoe,  made  necessary 
by  the  form  of  the  foot,  or  the 
action  of  the  horse.     See  if  there 
is  any  appreciable  difference  in 
the  size  or  shape  of  the  feet.  Ex- 
Figure   31.     A    handsome    high   amine  the  tendons  for  evidences 
spirited    troop    horse,    which    in    a      r  qnra;nQ 
brief    period    of    service    developed    C 

broken  knee,  near  leg;  splint,  off  I o.  Listen  to  the  heart  to  deter- 
leg,  and  capped  elbow,  near  leg. 

mine    if    its   beats    are    regular. 

Observe  the  breathing  to  determine  if  the  inspirations  and  ex- 
pirations are  equal.  If  inspiration  is  accomplished  with  one 
effort,  and  expiration  with  two,  called  "  double  breathing,"  the 
horse  is  unsound.  This  may  be  observed  by  watching  the  ab- 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


55 


domen.  Examine  the  abdomen  for  hernia.  Pass  the  hand  along 
under  the  chest  and  abdomen  to  feel  for  cinch  sores  and  shoe 
bruises  occasioned  by  a  faulty  method  of  lying  down. 

II.  Have  an  attendant  hold  up  a  fore  foot  while  an  examination 


i  2 

Figure  32.     i.  Splint  on  Near  Fore  Leg  above  Fetlock.    2.   Splint  Near 
Fore  Leg  below  Knee. 

is  made  of  geldings  to  see  if  castration  has  been  properly  per- 
formed, and  that  no  signs  of  scirrhous  cord  exist. 

12.  Examine  the  stifle  joint,  and  pass  the  hand  along  down  the 
near  hind  leg  to  the  hock,  comparing  at  the  same  time  the  relative 
size  of  the  hocks ;  examine  for  bone  and  bog  spavin,  thoroughpin, 
capped  hock  (figure  33),  curb  (figure  34),  and  skin  disease  in 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


! 


the  hollow  of  the  hocks  (sallenders).  The  inside  of  the  thigh 
should  be  examined  for  farcy  buds.  Examine  the  lower  limb 
and  foot  as  in  the  case  of  the  fore  leg,  except  that  some  injuries 
of  the  fore  are  never  found  in  the  hind. leg.  Pass  behind  and 

compare  the  hips,  quarters,  and 
buttocks;  feel  the  tail  and  ob- 
serve the  anus  and  vicinity  for 
injury  or  disease. 

13.  Proceed  to  the  off  (right) 
side  and  repeat  such  part  of  the 
examination  as  may  be  necessary 
for  that  side.     Observe  during 
the  entire  examination  whether 
any  parasites  are  attached  to  the 
skin. 

14.  Go  to  the    horse's    head, 
take  hold  of  the  bridle,  and  back 
him  suddenly;  if  the  tail  is  ele- 
vated and  the  hind  legs  do  not 
respond,    or   the   animal   should 
partially  sit  down,  or  elevate  one 
of  his  limbs  suddenly,  he  is  un- 
sound.    Turn  him  around  sud- 
denly   and    look    for    the    same 
symptoms.    The  horse  should  be 

led  with  a  loose  rein  at  a  walk,  and  then  at  a  trot,  his  action  being 
carefully  noted  for  any  inequality  of  movement,  which,  if  di? 
covered,  must  be  critically  examined. 

15.     Saddle  the  horse  and  observe  if  he  gives  in  the  loins  when 


Figure  33.     Capped  Hock. 


THE    CAVALRY    HORSE 


57 


mounted,  or  shows  any  signs  of  weakness.*  Have  him  ridden  at 
a  walk,  trot,  and  gallop,  and  watch  for  indications  of  lameness 
and  peculiarities  of  motion.  Have 
him  galloped  rapidly,  up  hill  if  prac- 
ticable, and  then  have  him  halted 
suddenly;  put  the  ear  close  to  his 
nostrils,  and  listen  to  his  respiration 
for  roaring,  whistling,  or  broken  wind, 
and  also  observe  if  respiration  sub- 
sides promptly  to  normal  or  not. 

Opinions  vary  as  to  whether  grunt- 
ing is  an  indication  of  unsoundness, 
and  many  practical  horsemen  believe 
this  trouble  changes  into  roaring.  To 
be  on  the  safe  side,  regard  it  as  an 
evidence  of  unsoundness.  To  detect  it, 
strike  the  horse  a  sharp  blow  with  a 
whip  or  stick,  and  make  believe  to 
strike  again,  when  the  horse  will 
grunt  if  affected  with  the  ailment.  It 
may  also  be  detected  by  halting  sud- 
denly from  a  rapid  gait. 


Figure  34.  Curb-en- 
largement Back  of  Leg 
Below  the  Hock. 


*  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  persons  with  considerable  experience  with 
horses,  proceed  to  pinch  a  horse  over  the  kidneys,  and  when  the  animal 
flinches  and  gives  down,  a  verdict  of  weakness  in  the  loins  is  rendered 
against  him.  The  case,  in  fact,  is  exactly  the  reverse,  for  if  a  horse  does 
not  show  any  sign  of  flinching,  when  so  pinched,  it  is  very  good  evidence 
that  something  is  wrong. 


CHAPTER  II. 

FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE  MECHANICALLY 
CONSIDERED. 

Center  of  Motion. — Center  of  Gravity. — Base  of  Support. — Relative  Posi- 
tions of  Centers  of  Motion  and  Gravity. — Equilibrium. — Effect  of 
Head  and  Neck  on  Center  of  Gravity. — Artificial  Balance  of  Saddle 
Horse. 

The  skeleton  forms  the  basis  of  the  animal  machine,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  have  some  understanding  of  it  from  a  mechanical, 
as  well  as  anatomical  point  of  view.  The  principles  involved  are 
familiar,  relating  chiefly  to  levers  and  equilibrium,  or  such  a  dis- 
tribution of  weight,  with  reference  to  its  supports,  as  to  insure 
stability.  The 'principal  weight  to  be  carried  is  the  rider  and 
packed  saddle. 

Looking  at  the  spine,  or  framework  of  the  back  on  which  the 
rider's  weight  is  to  be  carried,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  under  line 
of  the  vertebrae  is  nearly  straight,  although  not  horizontal,  since 
it  inclines  somewhat  downwards  towards  the  forehand.  The 
spinous  processes  of  the  first  thirteen  vertebras,  reckoning  from 
the  point  where  the  neck  is  attached,  incline  backwards ;  the  four- 
teenth, fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  are  nearly  upright,  and  the  remain- 
ing dorsal  and  all  the  lumbar  vertebrae  incline  forward. 

Regarding  the  entire  backbone  as  an  arch,  it  is  evident  that  the 
keystone  is  at  the  point  where  the  vertebrae  stand  upright,  that 
is,  about  the  fifteenth,  or  between  the  fourteenth  and  sixteenth. 
It  is  obvious  that  this  inclination  of  the  processes  towards  a 
central  point  is  intended  to  and  does  limit  the  motion  of  the  back 


FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE  59 

downward  and  upward,  so  that  the  center  of  motion  of  the 
horse's  body,  the  point  about  which  the  several  movements  of  the 
fore  and  hind  legs  are  performed  with  varying  degrees  of 
rapidity,  lies  near  the  fifteenth  vertebra.* 

This  is  further  shown  by  the  distribution  and  points  of  attach- 
ment of  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  adjacent  parts  of  the  fore 
and  hind  quarters.  Putting,  therefore,  the  progressive  movement 
of  the  animal  out  of  the  question,  as  being  equally  applicable  to 

*  Considerable  discussion  having  arisen  from  time  to  time  as  to  the 
fourteenth  vertebra  being  the  most  upright,  the  author  addressed  a  com- 
munication in  regard  to  this  point  to  one  of  the  recognized  veterinary 
authorities  in  America.  The  careful  consideration  given  the  subject 
justifies  the  publication  of  the  reply: 

AMERICAN  VETERINARY  COLLEGE,  May  23,  1894. 
Captain  W.  H.  Carter: 

DEAR  SIR. — To  answer  your  letter  of  the  i8th  inst.  I  have  made  re- 
searches which  I  send  you,  but  which  I  am  afraid  will  not  permit  a  defi- 
nite solution  of  the  problem. 

The  veterinary  anatomies  that  I  have  consulted  do  not  seem  to  agree 
as  placing  the  fourteenth  dorsal  vertebra  in  the  light  presented  by  Major 
DWYER'S  book.  For  instance,  STRANGEWAY  says  that  the  thirteenth,  four- 
teenth, and  fifteenth  are  nearly  upright,  and  the  sixteenth  oblique  forward. 
For  STEEL,  it  is  the  sixteenth.  For  RIGOT,  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
are  about  upright.  CHAUVEAU  and  FLEMING  says  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth are  about  upright,  the  eighteenth  bent  forward.  Others,  like 
PERCivAL*and  ELAINE,  make  no  mention  of  the  difference. 

Amongst  the  cuts  that  I  have  (Cuyer  and  Alix,  Leisering)  the  fifteenth 
seems  the  most  upright. 

Out  of  three  skeletons  that  are  in  the  museum  of  the  college  (French 
and  American),  two  natural  and  one  artificial,  the  fifteenth  is  the  most 
upright  of  all. 

Evidently  from  these,  taking  an  average,  it  appears  that  the  upright 
condition  of  the  superior  spinous  process  is  more  generally  admitted  as 
existing  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  than  in  the  fourteenth. 
****** 

I  remain  yours  very  respectfully, 

A.  LIAUTARD. 


6O  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

all  its  parts,  the  motion  of  the  several  parts  of  the  body  increases- 
in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  center  of  motion. 

The  same  rule  is  applicable  to  burdens  placed  on  the  horse's 
back,  especially  that  of  the  jider,  whose  frame  is  also  subject  to 
its  own  peculiar  motions,  some  of  which  are  caused  by  the  pro- 
gressive movement  of  the  animal. 

If  the  rider  be  placed  over  the  center  of  motion,  a  point  equally 
removed  from  the  four  points  of  support,  he  will  occupy,  as  it 
were,  the  summit  or  apex  of  a  more  or  less  regular  pyramid,  and 
should  have  greater  stability,  and  be  less  disturbed  by  the  horse's 
motion,  than  if  placed  at  any  other  point. 

The  determination  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  living  bodies, 
whose  parts  are  of  ununiform  density,  subject  to  constant  dis- 
placement by  locomotion,  change  of  attitude,  and  by  action  of  the 
organs  themselves,  is  a  very  difficult  matter  when  compared  to  its 
determination  in  bodies  of  geometrical  form  and  homogeneous 
construction.  The  practical  value  of  its  determination  in  the 
horse  lies  in  the  knowledge  thereby  acquired  as  to  the  proper 
distribution  of  load  in  order  to  retain  the  normal  position  of  the 
center  of  gravity,  and  thus  prevent  one  set  of  limbs  being  used 
up  before  the  others. 

The  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  and  the  distribution  of 
the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  legs  vary  with  the  conformation 
of  the  animal,  particularly  as  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the  head 
and  neck.  In  consequence  of  the  projecting  position  of  these 
parts,  a  somewhat  greater  proportion  of  its  total  weight  falls  on 
the  fore  legs  than  on  the  hind  ones,  and  causes  the  forehand  to 
average  about  one-ninth  heavier  than  the  hind. 

A  great  many  experiments  have  bten  made  to  determine  the 
exact  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  horse,  and  the  best 


FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE  6l 

authorities  agree  that  it  lies  at  or  near  the  intersection  of  a  ver- 
tical line  (AB,  figure  i)  passing  in  rear  of  the  high  point  of  the 
withers  at  about  the  ninth  vertebra,  and  a  horizontal  line  (EF) 
cutting  the  lower  third  of  the  body  from  the  upper  portion.  This 
intersection  will  generally  lie  in  the  median  plane  of  the  body. 

The  usual  method  of  determining  the  center  of  gravity  is  to  use 
two  weighing  machines,  so  placed  that  the  anterior  extremities 
rest  upon  the  middle  of  one,  and  the  posterior  extremities  upon 
the  middle  of  the  other.  By  this  same  method  the  effect  upon  the 
center  of  gravity  is  found  as  the  horse  raises  or  lowers  his  head ; 
when  the  saddle  and  load  are  shifted  forward  or  back ;  also,  when 
the  rider  throws  his  weight  into  the  stirrups,  or  leans  forward, 
back,  or  to  either  side. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  center  of  motion  is  situated  in  a  ver- 
tical line  intersecting  the  vertebrae  at  or  near  the  fifteenth  (CD, 
figure  i),  and  the  center  of  gravity  on  a  line  intersecting  the 
vertebrae  nearer  the  shoulder  (AB,  figure  i).  A  horse  in  a 
natural  state  goes  with  the  two  centers  in  the  relative  positions 
described,  and  can  do  so  with  a  rider ;  the  horse  can  also  go,  when 
either  trained  or  weighted,  so  that  the  center  of  gravity  falls  to 
the  rear  of  the  center  of  motion,  as  in  certain  styles  of  school 
riding. 

For  all  general  purposes,  however,  the  vertical  lines  falling 
through  these  two  centers  should  be  made  to  coincide ;  for  correct 
military  riding  this  condition  is  particularly  desirable,  owing  to 
the  necessity  for  turning  sharp  curves  at  all  rates  of  speed  while 
heavily  weighted. 

The  polygon,  formed  by  lines  joining  the  four  points  touched 
by  the  horse's  feet  standing  at  rest,  is  called  the  base  of  support. 
In  motion  this  base  of  support  becomes  sometimes  a  triangle,  at 
others  a  line,  and  finally,  as  in  the  run,  a  mere  point. 


62  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  equilibrium  is  of  course  more  stable  as  the  base  of  support 
becomes  larger,  and  the  line  of  gravitation  nearer  the  center  of 
the  base,  and  unstable  under  the  contrary  conditions.  A  broad 
or  "  square-built "  horse  will  have  a  condition  of  stable  equilib- 
rium greater  than  a  narrow-chested  horse,  whose  legs  are  close 
to  the  median  plane.  Both  being  at  rest,  the  rectangle  forming 
the  base  of  support  in  the  latter  case  will  fall  within  the  rectangle 
of  the  former,  the  length  being  the  same. 

While  at  rest  all  the  legs  are  regarded  as  bearers,  but  when  in 
motion  the  fore  legs  are  the  bearers,  and  the  hind  legs  act  essen- 
tially as  propellers.  To  a  certain  extent,  however,  the  fore  legs 
assist  propulsion,  as  the  hind  legs  also  assist  in  sustaining  the 
weight. 

It  is  an  established  fact  that  racehorses  are  favored  in  their 
stride  by  putting  the  jockey  well  forward,  and  the  converse  of 
this  is  true ;  that  is,  by  weighting  back  there  is  a  loss  of  propelling 
power,  owing  to  the  hind  legs  also  becoming  bearers.  While 
speed  is  gained  for  short  distances  by  adjusting  the  load  forward, 
it  will  not  do  for  service  because  of  the  rapid  breaking  down 
which  occurs  in  the  fore  legs. 

A  mounted  horse  is  said  to  be  in  equilibrium  when  he  is  capable 
of  obeying  the  hands  and  legs  of  the  rider  without  unnecessary 
effort,  and  with  perfect  freedom  of  the  muscular  groups  whose 
action  is  necessary  to  produce  the  desired  movements. 

What  has  been  shown  to  be  true  by  actual  experiments  with 
live  horses  on  proportion  scales,  may  be  illustrated  in  another 
way  by  a  simple  diagram. 

Suppose  the  head  and  neck  of  the  horse  to  occupy  the  position 
DA  in  figure  35 ;  the  relative  weight  would  then  be  represented 
by  the  distance  from  N  to  /  on  the  line  DE,  or  IN.  If  the  head 


FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE 


and  neck  be  lifted  to  the  position  DB,  the  relative  weight  will  be 
represented  by  IN',  and  if  still  more  elevated,  to  DC  by  IN". 
The  relative  overhanging  weight  of  the  head  and  neck  is  dimin- 
ished in  proportion  as  their  position  is  brought  nearer  to  that 
represented  by  DC,  and  the  further  effect  of  this  is  to  throw  the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  animal  to  the  rear  of  its  former  position ; 
that  is,  if  the  center  of  gravity  is  at  F  when  the  head  and  neck 
occupy  the  position  DA,  it  will  be  moved  to  G  when  the  head  and 

c 


B 


F  GH 


Figure  35.     Diagram:  Equilibrium  of  Horse. 

neck  are  raised  to  the  line  DB,  and  further  back  to  H  when  the 
head  and  neck  are  raised  to  the  position  DC. 

A  horse's  neck  is  flexible  to  a  certain  extent,  and  the  head 
which  forms  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  overhanging  weight, 
can  be  bent  at  various  angles  to  the  neck.  It  is  therefore  prac- 
ticable to  diminish  the  preponderance  of  these  members  by  alter- 
ing their  relative  position  as  described  above,  and  to  diminish  the 
distance  at  which  the  perpendicular  falls  outside  the  line  DE,  by 
bending  the  neck,  and  also  by  causing  the  head  to  assume  an  acute 
angle  with  the  neck,  whether  the  latter  be  straight  or  curved. 


64  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  application  of  this  knowledge  renders  it  possible,  in  con- 
nection with  proper  bitting  and  saddling,  to  train  cavalry  horses 
to  maintain  their  equilibrium  at  all  gaits  while  carrying  on  their 
backs  the  heavy  weight  of  trooper  and  pack,  which  combined 
equals  about  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  animal. 

In  the  foregoing  the  movement  of  the  center  of  gravity  has 
been  considered  only  in  a  vertical  plane.  It  also  has  a  marked 
horizontal  motion,  its  oscillations  to  the  right  and  left  at  a  walk 
and  trot  being  quite  regular,  and  constantly  traveling  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  fore  foot  which  is  about  to  support  the  weight. 

In  riding  on  curves,  as  in  the  riding-school,  the  horse  and  rider 
both  lean  toward  the  inside  to  bring  the  center  of  gravity  in  that 
direction,  otherwise  the  animal  would  lose  his  balance  and  fall. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  horse  not  only  leans  toward  the  inner  side 
of  the  curve,  but  also  turns  his  head  in  the  same  direction. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  center  of  gravity  lies  somewhat 
nearer  the  shoulders  than  the  center  of  motion.  It  is  a  very 
natural  question,  therefore,  as  to  whether  the  load  should  be  ad- 
justed so  as  to  leave  the  center  of  gravity  where  nature  placed 
it,  or  to  move  it  further  back. 

That  the  horse  instinctively  changes  the  location  of  this  center 
himself  is  shown  in  the  way  a  loose  horse  travels.  Horses  on  the 
range  moving  along  at  a  walk  almost  invariably  hang  their  heads 
down  slightly,  and  on  a  march  they  do  the  same  thing.  When 
they  strike  into  a  trot  every  head  will  go  up  at  once.  If  anything 
causes  the  herd  to  break  into  a  gallop,  so  long  as  they  remain  at 
a  canter  their  heads  will  continue  as  at  a  trot,  but  as  soon  as 
the  stride  becomes  lengthened  into  a  fast  gallop  or  run,  the  heads 
will  be  straightened  out  and  lowered  again.  Either  straightening 
out  or  lowering  the  head  brings  forward  the  center  of  gravity. 


FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE  65 

If  there  were  no  other  conditions  to  be  met  than  those  in- 
volving progress  in  a  forward  direction,  no  reason  would  exist 
for  any  alteration  of  the  horse's  natural  balance ;  but  there  are 
many  things  which  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration  which  in- 
fluence the  fixing  of  an  artificial  balance  of  the  saddle  animal, 
particularly  the  cavalry  horse. 

It  is  necessary  to  establish  the  horse  in  such  equilibrium  that 
he  may  execute  all  the  movements  of  drill  with  promptness  and 
accuracy,  and  with  a  minimum  of  fatigue  to  himself  and  rider. 
This  involves  quick  turns  without  decreasing  the  gait,  which 
latter  the  horse  in  nature  nearly  always  does.  To  use  a  saber  on 
horseback  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  horse  balanced  more  with  a 
view  to  quick  turns  on  the  hind  rather  than  the  forehand. 

One  reason  exists  for  throwing  the  balance  of  the  horse  some- 
what to  the  rear,  which  alone  makes  it  expedient  to  do  so.  This 
is  the  necessity  for  preventing  the  fore  feet  and  legs  from  be- 
coming prematurely  ruined.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  theory  merely, 
but  a  well-known  result  of  actual  experience,  that  horses  carrying 
weights  upon  their  backs  become  broken  down  in  front,  as  a  rule, 
long  before  they  suffer  any  deterioration  of  the  hind  legs.  The 
date  of  breaking  down  is  much  hastened  by  saddling  far  forward 
over  the  withers,  and  by  an  improper  use  of  the  stirrups,  which 
will  be  explained  later. 


CHAPTER  III. 


GAITS  OF  THE  HORSE. 

Motion  Implies  Displacement  of  Center  of  Gravity. — Natural  Gaits. — 
Stride  and  Step.— The  Walk.— The  Trot.— The  Hand  Gallop  or  Can- 
ter.— The  Fast  Gallop  or  Run;  True,  False,  Disconnected. — The  Jump. 


The  analysis  of  the  gaits  of  the  horse  is  a  science  of  itself,  into 
the  domain  of  which  the  average  officer  does  not  care  to  enter. 
A  brief  study  of  the  subject  will  be  sufficient  to  enable  the  student 
of  hippology  to  understand  why  a  trained  saddle  horse  is  safer 
and  much  more  pleasant  to  ride  than  the  sprawling  young  colt 
which  has  not  yet  been  established  in  his  gaits  or  carriage. 

The  movement  of  the  horse's  body  over  the  ground  implies 
displacement  of  the  center  of  gravity,  which  compels  the  legs  to 
form  new  bases  of  support.  The  more  unstable  the  equilibrium 
at  any  gait,  the  quicker  will  the  new  base  of  support  have  to  be 
formed,  and  the  greater  the  speed  for  that  particular  gait.  Any 
excess  of  muscle  beyond  that  required  for  the  due  working  of  the 
limbs  is  an  impediment  rather  than  an  aid  to  speed. 

There  are  four  natural  gaits,  the  walk,  amble,  trot,  and  gallop ; 
and  several  artificial  gaits,  being  more  or  less  variations  of  the 
natural  gaits.  Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  the  fox  trot ;  the 
running  walk,  a  cross  between  the  walk  and  trot ;  and  the  single 
foot,  distinguished  by  the  posterior  limbs  moving  in  the  order  of 
the  fast  walk  and  the  anterior  ones  in  that  of  a  trot,  being  an 


GAITS   OF   THE   HORSE  67 

irregular  gait,  the  characteristic  rhythm  of  the  footfall  of  which, 
once  learned,  will  be  easily  recognized,  even  in  the  dark. 

Marches,  drills,  and  maneuvers  are  performed  at  varying  de- 
grees of  speed,  but  the  only  authorized  and  desirable  gaits  are  the 
walk,  trot,  and  gallop.  Especially  should  officers'  horses  be 
trained  to  perform  those  gaits  at  the  regulation  rate  of  speed  per 
mile.  Nothing  else  is  so  trying  to  the  temper  of,  or  so  productive 
of  discomfort  to>  the  men  in  ranks,  as  an  officer  leading  the 
column  on  a  horse  with  a  running  walk  instead  of  a  square  walk, 
or  a  single  foot  instead  of  a  trot. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  in  the  analysis  of  the  gaits  it  will  be 
found  that  no  two  animals  will  show  the  same  imprints  at  any  par- 
ticular gait,  and  the  same  horse  even  will  be  found  to  vary 
greatly  in  a  few  strides.  By  stride  is  understood  the  distance 
from  the  print  of  one  foot  to  the  print  of  the  same  foot  when  it 
next  comes  to  the  ground,  in  its  regular  order  of  succession,  in 
contradistinction  to  step  which  relates  to  the  forward  or  back- 
ward movement  of  one  limb  only. 

These  modifications  depend  entirely  upon  the  conditions  under 
which  the  animal  is  placed,  for  the  horse  instinctively  alters  the 
position  of  his  supports  to  accommodate  his  equilibrium,  which 
may  be  slightly  but  continually  varied  by  his  rider.  This  is 
especially  noticeable  in  the  line  of  footprints  made  at  a  fast  gallop 
or  run.  In  this  case  the  horse  is  supported  by  one  limb  at  a  time, 
and  it  is  essential  that  the  variations  of  the  center  of  gravity  from 
side  to  side  should  be  promptly  met  by  corresponding  variations 
of  the  points  of  support,  as  well  as  the  variations  in  a  forward 
direction. 


68 


HORSES.  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


In  figure  36  the  dark  shoes  represent  the  prints  of  the  hind 
feet.     A,  B,  and  C  represent  the  trails  made  by  three  good  cavalry 


n! 

rtR 

o 

nj 

M 

o 

n 

o 

f] 

r> 

n 

h 

R 

r> 

0 

n 

n 

n 

0 

" 

n 

n 

n 

v  V 

ii 

t 

ji 

n 

ft 

fl 

o 

« 

H 

n 

B 

0 

n 

n 

^ 

f\ 

n 

0 

0 

4 
i 

4 

IF^L 

i 

{  y 

n 

q 

8 

« 

2 

0 

n 

n 

0 

f 

f 

n 

r 

n 

0 

.  . 

R 

^ 

1 

o 

n 

il 

h 

n 
n 

n 

0 

n 

n 

n 

n 

n 

r 

0 

G 

n 

o 

n 

r 

n 

n 

. 

V*i 

R 

0 

I  V 

i 

0 

B. 

<n 

R 

1 

B 

R 

B 

n 

/* 

n 

1 

n 

In 

n 
n 

fl 

fl 

i 

n 

n 

i 
s 

n 

n 

1 
1 

; 

r, 

* 

n 

r 

h 

ft 

A               73                f*                7)               JT                A?            f***'           j4f'           C*r*           jtf** 
**\             .JL>                Cx                JL/              -o                «/TL              5  *               «c*              v               «r» 

Figure  36.     Trails  of  Troop  Horses  ;  Walk,  Trot,  and  Gallop. 

GAITS    OF    THE    HORSE  69 

horses  taken  from  the  troop  stable,  and  walked  over  a  prepared 
track.  D  and  E  are  trails  drawn  on  the  same  scale,  to  illustrate 
the  superposed  imprints,  and  the  case  of  a  horse  which  steps  short 
with  his  hind  feet. 

A'  and  Cf  are  the  trails  made  at  a  trot  by  the  horses  used  for 
A  and  C. 

A"  and  C"  are  the  trails  made  at  a  gallop  by  the  same  horses, 
and  A'"  is  the  trail  made  at  a  fast  gallop  by  the  same  horse  used 
for  A,  A',  and  A". 

When  the  horse  started  over  C"  the  track  was  wet  near  the 
end,  which  caused  him  to  take  short  steps. 

The  Walk, — This  above  all  others  is  the  cavalry  gait,  since  the 
heavy  weight  of  trooper  and  pack  necessitates  its  use  on  the 
march  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  all  the  other  gaits  combined. 
Unfortunately  it  is  not  practicable  to  determine  the  ability  of  the 
horse  as  a  walker  by  his  conformation.  The  walk  of  most  horses 
is  improved  by  service  in  the  ranks. 

A  good  walk  is  characterized  by  a  high  rather  than  low  carriage 
of  the  head.  The  fore  legs  should  be  carried  forward  freely  and 
directly,  without  undue  elevation  of  the  knees.  The  hind  legs 
should  act  in  planes  parallel  to  those  in  which  the  fore  legs  move. 
The  hoofs  should  be  planted  squarely,  and  remain  in  place  with- 
out rotating  inward  or  outward.  The  prints  of  the  hind  feet 
should  appear  on  the  ground  in  front  of  those  of  the  fore  feet, 
and  the  intervals  between  them  on  one  side  should  be  the  same 
as  on  the  other.  External  influences  operate  in  this  connection, 
however,  for  the  prints  of  the  hind  feet  will  sometimes  be  found 
superposed  upon  those  of  the  fore,  and  at  other  times  to  fall  be- 
hind them  (A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  figure  36). 

The  walk  is  a  gait  of  four  flat  beats,  each  foot  being  planted 


7O  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

in  regular  order.  If  the  right  fore  foot  comes  first  to  the  ground, 
the  left  hind  foot  is  next  planted ;  then  the  left  fore  foot,  and 
finally  the  right  hind  foot.  During  this  movement  the  weight  is 
borne  first  by  the  two  fore  feet  and  the  right  hind  foot ;  then  by 
the  right  fore  foot  and  the  right  hind  foot ;  then  by  the  two  hind 
feet  and  the  right  fore  foot ;  and  lastly  by  the  left  fore  foot  and 
the  right  hind  foot. 

The  center  of  gravity  always  falls  near  the  intersection  of  the 
lines  connecting  the  diagonal  feet,  but  within  the  triangle  connect- 
ing the  three  feet  furnishing  support. 

If  the  horse  be  collected  between  the  hand  and  heels  of  its  rider, 
the  movement  that  results  is  the  safest  of  all.  The  horse  has 
never  less  than  two,  and  never  more  than  three  feet,  bearing  the 
weight  at  the  same  time.  When  he  quickens  his  movement  he 
does  not  at  once  change  his  gait,  but  extends  his  strides,  and 
makes  them  more  uniform  until  further  extension  becomes  dif- 
ficult, when  he  will  break  into  a  trot. 

The  Trot.— In  the  trot  the  footfalls  mark  two  sharp  beats,  and 
the  horse  springs  from  one  pair  of  diagonally  disposed  legs  to 
the  other  pair,  and  is  entirely  free  from  the  ground  between  each 
step,  except  in  the  short  trot.  If  the  trot  depends  simply  upon 
this  united  action  of  a  fore  leg  and  its  diagonal  hind  leg,  the  pace 
may  be  very  slow,  but  if  the  speed  be  such  that  the  stride  is  too 
long  for  the  fore  feet  to  remain  upon  the  ground  together,  the 
true  trot  results,  and  the  horse  goes  into  the  air  from  each  pair 
of  diagonal  bearers  alternately.  The  jog  trot  is  a  hybrid  gait, 
and  is  not  performed  this  way. 

The  trot  differs  from  a  walk,  in  that  the  horse  has  always  two 
feet  upon  the  ground  at  a  walk,  while  at  the  trot  there  is  always 
a  space  of  time  in  which  all  the  feet  are  off  the  ground. 


GAITS   OF   THE   HORSE  71 

The  weight  is  borne  by  the  diagonally  disposed  limbs  alter- 
nately, and  the  step  being  supposed  to  be  a  constant  quantity  in 
the  fast  trot,  the  stride  can  be  extended  only  by  increasing  the 
space  which  the  body  passes  over  with  its  center  of  gravity  un- 
supported. In  the  ordinary  trot  this  distance  is  small,  but  in  the 
fast  trot  it  exceeds  that  in  which  the  body  is  supported. 

In  the  ordinary  trot  the  imprints  of  the  hind  feet  are  super- 
posed upon  those  of  the  fore  feet,  but  many  horses,  especially 
young  and  untrained  ones,  bring  their  hind  feet  more  or  less 
ahead  of  the  prints  of  the  fore  feet.  This  is  easily  seen  by  hoof- 
marks  on  moist  ground  (Af  and  C',  figure  36). 

There  are  other  horses  that  instead  of  overstepping,  come 
short  of  the  track  of  the  fore  feet  with  the  hind  ones.  Those  that 
overstep  will  usually  be  found  to  be  such  as  are  overweighted  on 
the  forehand,  whilst  those  that  step  short  are  usually  such  as  are 
overweighted  behind  or  that  have  some  weakness  or  other  defect 
in  their  hind  quarters. 

While  the  trot  is  not  designed  by  nature  to  be  the  fastest  gait, 
it  is  the  one  in  which  the  average  horse  is  capable  of  traveling 
farther  in  a  day's  journey,  with  less  fatigue,  than  any  other.  It 
is  now  adopted  as  the  maneuvering  gait  for  cavalry,  and  has 
grown  much  in  favor  as  a  marching  gait,  for  the  reason  that, 
when  not  too  heavily  weighted,  the  horse  completes  the  march  in 
a  shorter  time,  is  then  entirely  relieved  of  his  load,  and  given 
more  time  for  rest  and  feeding. 

A  moderate  trot  should  be  less  fatiguing  to  horses  than  any 
other  gait  on  account  of  the  diagonal  pairs  of  legs  being  used  as 
bearers  and  propellers  alternately.  Some  horses  will,  however, 
when  ridden,  break  into  a  canter,  because  the  alternate  shifting 
of  their  own  and  the  rider's  weight  from  right  to  left  becomes, 


72  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

with  their  particular  conformation,  more  fatiguing  than  the  con- 
stant use  of  each  pair  of  legs  for  the  same  purpose. 

Horses  overweighted  on  the  forehand  and  hurried  in  a  trot, 
being  unable  to  support  the  weight  thrown  more  and  more  rap- 
idly on  their  fore  legs,  break  into  a  canter  or  gallop. 

Hand  Gallop  or  Canter. — The  difference  between  the  canter 
and  the  fast  gallop,  or  running  gait,  is  sufficient  to  cause  them  to 
be  mentioned  separately.  The  canter  is  a  gait  in  which  if  the 
weight  is  received  upon  the  left  hind  foot,  it  next  falls  upon  the 
right  hind  and  left  fore,  and  then  upon  the  right  fore  foot.  It  is 
a  gait  of  three  beats,  inasmuch  as  the  second  period  of  contact 
is  marked  by  the  diagonally  opposite  hind  and  fore  feet  coming 
down  together. 

The  trail  made  by  the  horse  at  this  gait  is  entirely  different 
from  that  at  the  fast  gallop  or  run,  but  in  passing  from  one  to 
the  other  the  rider  does  not  perceive  any  disunited  or  violent 
action  akin  to  that  which  takes  place  in  passing  from  a  trot  to 
a  gallop,  and  the  reverse.  The  horse  simply  extends  himself, 
gradually  if  not  urged,  and  passes  imperceptibly  to  the  gait  in 
which  a  diagonal  pair  of  feet  no  longer  come  down  together,  and 
which  will  be  described  as  the  gallop.  The  horse  leads  with  a 
fore  leg,  which  does  not  act  with  the  diagonal  hind  leg. 

The  Fast  Gallop  or  Run. — This  is  the  most  rapid  of  gaits,  and 
is  taken  when  the  propulsion  from  the  hind  quarters  becomes  so 
vigorous  as  to  shift  the  center  of  gravity,  and  prevent  the  balance 
necessary  for  the  performance  of  any  of  the  other  gaits.  It  has 
heretofore  been  the  least  understood  of  all  the  gaits  as  evidenced 
by  all  old  pictures  of  horses  in  rapid  motion. 

The  most  perfect  method  of  quadrupedal  locomotion  is  that  in 
which  the  greatest  speed  is  attained  with  the  least  expenditure  of 


GAITS    OF   THE    HORSE 


73 


Figure  37.     The  Galloping  Stride. 


74  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

vital  force.  This  is  found  in  the  horse  in  which  the  deviation  of 
the  line  of  motion  from  the  horizontal  is  least.  Perfect  locomo- 
tion requires  uniform  support  to  the  center  of  gravity  and  con- 
tinuous propulsion.  The  fast  run  more,  nearly  fulfills  these 
conditions  than  any  other  gait. 

The  imprints  left  upon  the  ground  by  a  running  horse  follow 
each  other  very  nearly  in  a  straight  line.  This  indicates  a  min- 
imum size  in  a  transverse  direction,  of  the  base  of  support,  and 
consequently  great  instability,  as  well  as  speed  (A",  C",  and  A'", 
figure  36) . 

The  drawings  (figure  37),  introduced  to  show  the  action  of  the 
horse  in  performing  the  galloping  stride,  are  from  the  MUYBRIDGE 
photographs. 

The  center  of  gravity  is  supposed  to  be  under  the  saddle.  I 
of  the  drawings  represents  the  rider  and  horse  ready  to  start. 
The  horse  goes  into  the  air  from  a  fore  foot  (2,  3,  and  4)  ;  receives 
the  weight  upon  the  diagonal  hind  foot  (5  and  6)  ;  then  plants 
the  other  hind  foot  (7)  ;  then  taking  the  weight  upon  the  latter, 
extends  himself  and  plants  the  diagonal  fore  foot  (8)  ;  takes  the 
weight  upon  the  latter  (9  and  10),  and  then  plants  the  other  fore 
foot  (n  and  12),  which  then  alone  sustains  the  weight  until  the 
center  of  gravity  passes  over  it,  when  the  horse  again  goes  into 
the  air,  to  alight  upon  the  diagonal  hind  foot,  planted  in  front  of 
the  spot  just  vacated  by  the  last-mentioned  fore  foot. 

When  a  horse  goes  into  the  air  from  his  near  (left)  fore  leg, 
followed  in  the  succession  shown  in  figure  37,  he  is  said  to  be 
leading  with  the  near  (left)  fore  leg.  When  he  goes  into  the 
air  from  his  off  (right)  fore  leg,  followed  by  the  other  legs  in  the 
corresponding  order  of  succession,  he  is  said  to  be  leading  with 
his  off  (right)  fore  leg. 


GAITS    OF   THE    HORSE  75 

When  a  horse  leads  with  his  near  (left)  fore  leg  and  is  gal- 
loping true  he  is  said  to  execute  gallop  left ;  when  he  leads  with 
his  off  (right)  fore  leg  under  similar  conditions  he  is  said  to 
gallop  right. 

The  gallop  is  called  true  when  it  is  effected  upon  the  right  foot 
when  the  horse  turns  to  the  right.  It  is  called  false  under  con- 
trary conditions,  that  is,  when  the  horse  gallops  to  the  right  on 
a  curve  while  leading  with  his  left  fore  foot. 

So  long  as  the  horse  goes  upon  a  straight  course  it  matters 
.little  whether  the  gallop  is  effected  upon  one  foot  or  the  other, 
although  the  horse  often  takes  advantage  of  a  slackening  in  his 
speed  to  change  the  order  of  succession  of  his  feet,  most  prob- 
ably to  ease  up  on  a  fatigued  member. 

It  is  quite  different,  however,  when  the  course  is  curvilinear. 
A  centrifugal  force  is  developed,  which  increases  with  the 
velocity  of  the  gait  and  the  curvature  of  the  track.  The  horse 
is  therefore  obliged  to  incline  himself  towards  the  inner  side  of 
the  trail  to  counteract  this  force.  In  view  of  a  fall,  which  is 
always  imminent,  he  must  steady  his  equilibrium  on  that  side  by 
the  foothold  of  the  corresponding  propelling  member;  the  right 
if  the  course  turn  to  the  right,  the  left  if  it  turn  to  the  left. 

The  gallop  is  disunited  when  the  horse  leads  with  his  fore  feet 
in  an  inverse  manner  to  the  movement  of  his  hind  feet;  that  is, 
if  he  gallops  to  the  right  with  his  fore  feet,  his  hind  feet  will 
move  as  if  he  were  galloping  to  the  left.  The  right  fore  foot 
would  lead,  and  the  left  hind  be  the  last  to  leave  the  ground, 
whereas  in  the  united  gallop,  if  the  right  fore  foot  leads,  the  right 
hind  should  be  the  last  to  leave  the  ground. 

The  horse  gallops  disunited  with  great  difficulty.  It  usually 
occurs  when  the  horse  tries  to  effect  a  change  of  lead,  and  is  sud- 


76  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

denly  interfered  with.  It  causes  much  discomfort  to  the  rider, 
and  cannot  be  continued  by  the  horse  for  any  length  of  time. 

In  consequence  of  the  regular  alternation  of  the  members  at  a 
walk  and  trot,  the  work  performed  by  each  diagonal  pair  is  iden- 
tical, but  in  the  gallop  this  is  not  the  case.  In  galloping  to  the 
right,  the  right  fore  and  hind  legs  in  turn  support  the  body  for  a 
longer  period  than  the  legs  of  the  other  side.  The  hind  leg  on 
which  the  body  falls  has  to  sustain  more  than  the  fore  leg,  which 
supports  it  only  before  the  phase  of  projection.  It  follows,  that 
in  order  to  distribute  the  work  equally  upon  the  horse's  legs,  a 
change  of  lead  from  time  to  time  should  be  effected. 

The  fatigue  of  the  horse  at  any  gait  will  depend  very  much 
upon  the  movement  of  his  center  of  gravity.  If  this  center 
varies  but  little  from  a  horizontal  line  the  strength  is  not  ex- 
pended as  rapidly  as  when  there  is  great  variation,  for  the  same 
amount  of  lifting  is  not  required.  In  the  first  case  the  horse  goes 
level,  with  great  freedom  of  action,  and  should  produce  little 
fatigue  to  himself  or  rider.  In  the  second  case,  the  rider  being 
lifted  vertically  through  a  considerable  distance  at  every  stride, 
the  gait  is  not  smooth ;  the  connection  between  horse  and  rider 
is  not  closely  maintained,  and  the  horse  is  characterized  as 
"rough." 

If  the  horse  be  urged  at  any  gait  to  continually  extend  him- 
self beyond  his  ordinary  capacity,  it  will  be  more  fatiguing  to  him 
than  if  permitted  to  take  the  next  faster  gait. 

The  Jump. — Although  leaping  is  a  mode  of  progression,  it  is 
not  a  continuous  one,  and  cannot  be  properly  considered  a  gait. 
All  quadrupeds  in  a  wild  state  acquire  a  knowledge  of  jumping  as 
a  matter  of  necessity,  but  the  horse  of  civilization,  especially  when 
carrying  a  rider,  requires  considerable  training  and  good  handling 
in  order  to  enable  him  to  surmount  difficult  obstacles. 


GAITS   OF   THE    HORSE 


77 


Preparation. 


Passing  the  Obstacle. 


Impulsion. 


Descent  in  front. 


Descent  behind. 
Figure  38.     The  Jump. 


78  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

Some  horses  can  jump  while  at  a  trot,  or  even  from  a  standing 
position,  but  the  majority  of  horses  can  perform  satisfactorily 
only  at  a  gallop  sufficiently  slow  to  enable  the  animal  to  measure 
the  height  of  the  obstruction  or  length  of  the  leap  he  is  expected 
to  make. 

Approaching  an  obstruction  at  a  run  (figure  38),  the  horse  be- 
trays anxiety  by  shortening  his  steps,  advancing  with  both  hind 
feet  nearly  simultaneously,  until  sufficiently  near  to  take  off.  He 
then  brings  his  hind  feet  well  under  the  center  of  gravity,  and  in- 
stantly the  fore  leg  on  the  ground  is  propelled  upward  to  raise 


Figure  39.    Trail  of  the  Jump. 

the  forehand,  and  this  action  is  immediately  followed  by  energetic 
propulsion  of  the  hind  legs,  sufficient  to  lift  the  weight  to  the 
height  required,  not  only  to  surmount  the  obstacle,  but  to  carry 
the  long  body  of  the  horse  entirely  over. 

The  hind  extremities  from  the  extreme  of  tension  on  leaving 
the  ground,  pass  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  flexion  as  they  go 
over  the  obstacle,  and  both  fore  and  both  hind  as  they  pass  are 
so  nearly  in  unison  that  they  appear  together  in  pairs.  After 
passing  the  obstacle  the  fore  legs  separate,  in  order  not  to  make 
contact  with  the  ground  at  the  same  time.  One  of  the  fore  legs 
is  extended  to  check  the  force  of  the  descent,  which,  from  the 
loss  of  horizontal  motion,  has  little  more  than  the  momentum 
of  gravity  to  deal  with.  This  is  the  instant  of  great  danger  to 
the  pastern  joint  and  flexor  tendons ;  but  before  these  parts  are 
put  to  the  extreme  test  the  other  fore  leg  comes  to  the  relief  of 
its  fellow,  and  immediately  after  the  hind  extremities,  one  after 


GAITS    OF   THE    HORSE 


79 


the  other,  are  planted  under  the  center  of  gravity,  and  by  their 
great  lifting  force  relieve  the  fore  legs.  All  the  legs  are  now 
free  to  act  their  various  parts  in  the  gallop  as  before  the  jump. 
The  trail  made  by  the  horse  in  leaping  the  hedge  is  shown  in 
figure  39. 


Figure  40-     "Chappie"  jumping  the  bars  at  5'  8"  in  height  and  covering 

25'  horizontally. 

Figure  40  is  an  unusually  good  illustration  of  the  flying  jump 
by  Mr.  Holloway's  "  Chappie,"  at  Chevy  Chase,  Md.,  Septem- 
ber, 1897,  over  bars  5'  8"  high,  and  covering  a  horizontal  distance 
of  25  feet.  The  record  for  high  jumping  has  been  held  for 
some  years  by  horses  which  have,  in  turn,  cleared  the  bars  at 
heights  considerably  over  seven  feet. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
BITS. 

Classified  as  Bar,  Snaffle  and  Curb.— The  Mouthing;  Pelham  —  Bit  and 
Bridoon. — Horse's  Mouth  Structurally  Considered :  Curb  Groove ; 
Tongue  Channel;  Bars. — Temperament  of  Mouth:  Normal;  Tender; 
Hard;  Spoiled. — Dimensions  Considered  in  Fitting  Curb  Bits;  Width 
of  Mouth;  Width  of  Tongue  Channel;  Height  of  Bars;  Mouth  Guage 
and  Trial  Bit. — The  Curb  Bit:  Proportions  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Branches;  Falling  Through;  Standing  Stiff;  The  Curb  Chain. — Form 
and  Proportions  of  Mouth-Piece. — American,  British  and  European 
Cavalry  Bits. 

There  is  an  endless  variety  of  bits,  many  of  which  having  been 
successfully  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  particular  cases,  are 
subsequently  advertised  as  panaceas  for  all  forms  of  restiveness 
arising  from  bad  bitting.  Such  articles  have  a  period  of  popu- 
larity more  or  less  brief,  and  are  then  cast  aside  for  some  later 
innovation,  which,  probably  like  its  predecessor,  contains  none 
of  the  essential  elements  of  a  good  bit. 

For  the  purpose  of  discussion,  bits  may  be  arranged  under  three 
general  classes: 

First.  Bar  bits,  or  bits  with  solid  mouth-pieces  without  lever 
action,  and  in  which  a  minimum  of  pressure  on  the  bars  of  the 
horse's  mouth,  and  a  maximum  on  the  tongue,  are  obtained.  This 
is  the  lightest  form  of  bit,  and  is  used  on  driving  rather  than 
saddle  horses. 

Second.  Snaffle  bits,  or  those  with  jointed  mouth-pieces,  with- 
out lever  action  but  with  a  slight  pincer  action. 

Third.     Curb  bits,  or  those  in  which  lever  action  is  obtained  by 


BITS  8l 

means  of  cheek  pieces,  and  a  curb  chain,  acting  on  the  chin,  to 
increase  the  amount  of  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  the  bars 
of  the  horse's  mouth  by  a  pull  on  the  reins. 

Bar  bits  are  usually  made  with  a  straight  or  very  slightly  curved 
mouth-piece,  with  a  medium-sized  ring  at  either  end,  and  some- 
times with  half-cheek  pieces  (No.  I,  figure  41).  They  are  some- 
times made  with  cheek-pieces  similar  to  those  of  curb  bits  (No.  2, 
figure  41),  but  when  the  reins  are  attached  to  the  lower  branches 
and  no  curb  chains  or  straps  are  used,  the  pressure  on  the  bars  is 
not  increased,  but  rather  diminished,  since  some  of  it  is  trans- 
ferred through  the  cheek  straps  to  the  top  of  the  head  or  poll. 
Many  of  the  driving  bits  have  the  mouth-pieces  covered  with  rub- 
ber; a  chain  bit  so  covered  is  shown  with  part  of  the  rubber  re- 
moved in  No.  3,  figure  41. 

The  common  smooth  snaffle  bit  with  one  joint  (No.  5,  figure 
41),  is  the  most  useful  of  all  bits.  For  the  saddle  horse  it  should 
be  of  the  simplest  form,  neither  too  long,  too  thin,  nor  too  much 
curved,  and  each  half  should  be  tapered  down  from  the  outside 
to  the  middle. 

Snaffle  bits  are  often  made  with  rings  only,  the  cheek-pieces 
being  omitted.  They  are  sometimes  made  with  a  double- jointed 
mouth-piece  (No.  4,  figure  41),  and  occasionally  with  two  mouth- 
pieces, plain  or  twisted,  the  joint  of  one  being  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  center  from  the  other  (No.  7,  figure  41).  Then  there 
is  the  single-twisted  wire  snaffle  bit,  a  very  efficacious  instrument 
for  ruining  the  horse's  mouth  (No.  6,  figure  41)  ;  and  still  an- 
other contrivance  called  a  bit,  but  in  reality  two  rings  connected 
by  a  chain  (No.  12,  figure  41). 

The  mouthing  bit  (No.  8,  figure  41)  is  intended  for  use  on 
young  colts  during  the  first  period  of  training.  The  mouth-piece 
6 


82 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


Figure  41.     Varieties  of  Bits. 


BITS  83 

is  very  large  at  the  outer  ends,  with  a  gradual  tapering  to  the 
ring  joint,  to  which  are  attached  three  small  metal  tags  suspended 
on  a  thin  plate.  The  mouth-piece  being  thick  near  the  guards,  is 
not  apt  to  wound  the  tender  bars  and  lips  of  the  young  horse. 
The  tags  hang  upon  and  tickle  the  tongue,  and  cause  the  colt  to 
champ  the  bit,  as  it  is  called,  and  tend  to  keep  his  mind  occu- 
pied while  he  is  undergoing  the  process  of  being  familiarized  with 
strange  sights  and  sounds.  This  bit  is  made  with  full  cheek- 
pieces,  to  prevent  the  rings  from  being  drawn  into  the  mouth. 
Upon  the  gentle  application  of  this  and  the  plain  snaffle  to  the 
colt's  mouth,  much  of  the  future  usefulness  of  the  mature  horse 
depends. 

The  snaffle  bit,  called  bridoon,  which  is  used  in  combination 
with  a  curb  bit,  has  a  mouth-piece  of  smaller  diameter  than  is 
generally  the  case  where  the  snaffle  bit  is  used  alone  and  usually 
has  small  rings,  with  no  cheek-pieces,  at  the  outer  ends. 

Curb  bits  are  made  in  a  multiplicity  of  shapes,  but  each  bit 
consists  primarily  of  a  solid  mouth-piece  connecting  two  cheek- 
pieces.  The  upper  branches  of  the  cheek-pieces  are  always  straight, 
but  the  lower  branches  may  be  straight,  single  or  double  curved. 
The  mouth-piece  is  usually  joined  solidly  to  each  cheek-piece,  but 
some  curb  bits  are  arranged  to  permit  of  a  slight  play  of  the 
mouth-piece  up  and  down  on  the  cheek-pieces.  The  mouth- 
piece may  in  its  lightest  form  be  straight  or  it  may  be  curved 
throughout.  The  common  form  of  mouth-piece  has  an  upward 
curve  or  tongue  port  at  the  center.  When  a  curb  chain  is  at- 
tached and  there  is  no  pull  on  the  reins,  the  port  rests  on  the  tongue. 
When  a  pull  on  the  reins  is  exerted  the  port  revolves  upward  and 
forward,  and  the  parts  of  the  mouth-piece  embraced  between  the 
cheek-pieces  and  the  port  are  forced  against  the  bars  of  the 


84  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

horse's  jaws.  The  mechanical  action  of  the  bit  is  that  of  a  lever 
of  the  second  order.  The  upper  ends  of  the  cheek-pieces  being 
held  by  the  curb  chain,  acting  against  the  back  of  the  jaw  bone, 
and  the  power  being  applied  at  the  lower  ends  of  the  cheek-pieces 
by  a  pull  on  the  reins,  the  force  exerted  against  the  bars  of  the 
jaw  represents  the  weight. 

A  curb  bit  with  straight  cheeks  and  a  similar  bit  with  square 
top  port  and  lip  strap  rings  are  shown  in  Nos.  9  and  10,  figure  41. 

The  lip  strap  rings  are  set  in  the  back  part  of  the  lower  branches 
of  the  cheek-pieces  and  are  used  for  the  attachment  of  a  small 
strap  or  string,  which  passes  up  to  a  ring  at  the  rear  and  center 
of  the  curb  chain.  The  object  of  the  lip  strap  is  to  prevent  the 
horse  from  putting  his  lip  outside  either  of  the  lower  branches  of 
the  cheek-pieces  and  from  turning  over  the  curb  bit,  by  throwing 
up  his  head. 

There  is  a  hybrid  bit,  called  Pelham,  used  both  for  driving  and 
riding,  which  has  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  curb  bit  and  a  mouth- 
piece jointed,  either  like  the  common  snaffle  bit  or  like  a  pair  of 
compasses.  This  bit  is  called  the  compass  canon  in  books  of  two 
hundred  years  ago  on  the  horse.*  It  is  supposed  to  possess  the 
virtues  of  the  curb  bit  without  all  its  severity.  As  it  is  provided 
with  guard  rings,  it  can  be  used  either  as  a  snaffle  or  curb  bit. 
Riding  Pelhams  are  very  good  bits  but  the  action  is  far  inferior 
to  that  of  the  ordinary  curb  and  snaffle  bits,  used  in  combination 
as  "bit  and  bridoon."  A  driving  Pelham  bit  is  shown  in  No.  n, 

*  During  the  autumn  of  1900  an  excavation  was  made  at  the  site  of 
"  Jamestown  "  to  uncover  the  ruins  of  what  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
first  tavern  in  Virginia.  Amongst  other  implements  found  in  one  of  the 
rooms  was  a  "Pelham"  bit  now  in  the  possession  of  the  author. 
Jamestown  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1676. 


BITS  85 

figure  41.  It  has  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  curb  bit  with  a  jointed 
snaffle  mouth-piece,  and  it  is  used  with  curb  chain  or  strap. 

The  upper  branches  of  some  curb  bits  are  made  double*  on  each 
side,  the  upper  branch  proper  carrying  the  curb  chain  or  strap, 
and  the  other  being  attached  to  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  bridle.  A 
pull  on  the  reins  acts  to  tighten  the  curb  directly,  without  any 
pressure  on  the  top  of  the  head.  This  is  provided  for  by  the 
swivel  motion  of  the  upper  branches. 

There  are  some  important  points  relating  to  the  horse's  mouth 
which  should  be  understood  in  connection  with  the  consideration 
of  bits. 

The  lower  lip  of  the  horse  is  covered  with  a  very  thick  skin, 
underneath  which  lie  the  roots  of  the  beard,  fat  and  membrane, 
and  this  structure  is  continued  up  into  a  depression  under -the 
chin,  known  as  the  chin  groove,  or  curb  groove.  The  portion  of 
bone  immediately  beneath  the  thick,  and  not  very  sensitive,  skin 
of  the  chin  groove,  being  the  point  where  the  two  branches  of  the 
jaw  begin  to  unite  together,  is  flat  and  rounded  off  in  all  direc- 
tions. If  a  flat  curb  chain,  or  strap  which  has  a  proper  width,  act 
in  this  groove,  a  considerable  amount  of  pressure  may  be  applied 
there  without  causing  any  pain  to  the  horse. 

Immediately  above  this  groove  the  character  of  the  bone  and 
that  of  the  skin  covering  it  are  very  much  changed;  the  former 
has  sharp  edges,  and  the  latter  is  very  thin  and  sensitive,  so  that 
a  slight  pressure  of  this  thin  skin  on  the  sharp  edges  of  bone 
causes  very  considerable  pain.  These  peculiarities  should  be 
borne  in  mind  in  order  to  properly  bit  a  horse,  for  pieces  of  the 
bone  are  sometimes  broken  off  and  cause  suppuration  for  long 
periods. 

The  lower  jaw  of  the  horse  consists  of  two  cheek  bones,  whose 


86  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

branches  form  a  groove  or  channel  in  which  the  animal's  tongue 
lies.  Those  parts  of  the  jaw  on  either  side  devoid  of  teeth,  ex- 
cept the  tusks,  are  called  the  bars,  and  it  is  somewhere  upon  them 
that  the  bit  must  be  placed.  So  far  as  the  bars  are  concerned, 
the  location  of  the  bit  could  be  varied  an  inch  or  more;  this 
variation,  however,  is  limited  on  account  of  the  necessity  for 
placing  the  bit  opposite  the  chin  groove. 

It  is  self-evident  that  horses'  mouths  are  not  all  alike;  there- 
fore each  individual  horse  requires  a  bit  adapted  to  the  particular 
dimensions  and  temperament  of  its  mouth. 

The  bit,  by  its  pressure,  more  or  less  severe,  on  the  bars  and 
chin,  causes  pain  of  variable  intensity.  The  temperament  of  the 
mouth  is  judged  by  the  reaction  in  consequence  of  this  pain. 

The  mouth  is  normal  when  it  supports  the  bit  with  freedom, 
without  uneasiness  or  fear;  when  it  neither  resists  nor  yields  too 
easily  to  the  action  of  the  hand. 

The  mouth  is  tender  when  it  perceives  the  most  delicate  impres- 
sions of  the  hand. 

The  mouth  is  hard  when  it  yields  only  to  an  energetic  pull  on 
the  reins. 

A  spoiled  mouth  is  one  which  reacts  falsely  to  the  indications 
of  the  bit,  whatever  may  be  its  sensibility  otherwise.  Horses 
with  very  tender  mouths  or  mouths  rendered  excessively  callous 
by  bad  bitting  and  indifferent  riders  usually  come  under  this  class. 

Aside  from  the  effects  produced  by  variations  of  temperament 
in  the  horse,  it  is  the  bars  that  must  be  examined  for  an  explana- 
tion of  these  varieties  of  mouth,  for  it  is  upon  these  more  or  less 
sensitive  gums  that  the  action  of  all  bits  fall  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent. 

While  there  is  great  uniformity  in  the  absolute  height  of  the 


BITS  87 

bars,  there  is  on  the  other  hand  a  very  great  diversity  in  their 
shape  and  texture.  Some  are  sharp,  fine,  firm  and  sensitive ; 
others  are  broad,  flat-topped,  coarse  and  devoid  of  much  feeling. 
The  former  usually  characterize  tender  and  the  latter  hard- 
mouthed  horses. 

As  a  rule  well-bred  horses  have  the  first,  and  common  horses 
have  the  second  kind  of  bars,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
former  all  have  tender  and  the  latter  hard  mouths,  for  much  de- 
pends upon  individual  sensibility.  The  first  is  usually  found  in 
combination  with  a  thin  tongue  which  just  fills  the  channel,  thus 
permitting  the  mouth-piece  to  exercise  its  proper  action  on  the 
bars.  The  second,  on  the  contrary,  is  generally  found  with  a 
coarse,  thick  tongue,  which  more  than  fills  the  channel,  often 
protruding  so  high  as  to  take  much  of  the  pressure  off  the  bars. 

There  are  three  dimensions  of  the  interior  of  the  horse's  mouth, 
which  should  be  ascertained  before  attempting  to  fit  him  ac- 
curately with  a  proper  bit,  namely : 

First.  The  transversal  width  of  the  mouth  from  outside  to 
outside  of  the  lips,  measured  at  the  height  of  the  chin  groove. 

Second.  The  width  of  the  channel  or  groove  in  which  the 
tongue  lies,  or  the  distance  between  the  two  bars. 

Third.  The  height  of  the  bars,  or  the  distance  between  two 
straight  edges,  one  placed  across  the  bars  under  the  tongue,  and 
the  other  parallel  to  it,  and  tangent  to  the  curb  groove. 

The  first  measures  the  length  of  the  mouth-piece  of  the  curb 
bit,  which  should  fit  exactly.  If  the  mouth-piece  is  too  short  the 
lips  are  subject  to  injury,  and  if  too  long  it  slips  from  side  to 
side,  and  allows  the  corners  of  the  port  to  come  against  and  bruise 
the  bars.  The  width  of  the  mouth  is  a  very  variable  quantity, 
depending  much  upon  the  breed,  as  well  as  the  size  of  the  horse. 


88 


HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 


It  varies  from  about  three  and  a  half  to  five  and  a  half  inches; 
the  larger  dimension  is  seldom  found  in  good  saddle  horses. 

The  second,  which  is  the  width  of  the  tongue  channel,  deter- 
mines how  much  of  the  mouth-piece  of  the  curb  bit  must  be  al- 
lowed for  the  width  of  the  port,  the  remainder  being  reserved  for 
the  action  on  the  bars.  - 


Figure  42.     Mouth  gauge  and  trial  bit. 

The  third,  which  is  termed  the  height  of  the  bars,  is  important, 
because  all  the  dimensions  of  the  curb  bit  are  usually  proportional 
to  it.  The  height  of  the  bars  has  been  found  to  be  quite  uniform 
in  all  horses,  being  about  one  and  three-fourths  inches. 

An  Austrian  mouth  gauge  for  ascertaining  the  dimensions  of 
the  horse's  mouth  is  made  of  steel,  and  consists  of  a  bar,  ab,  (A, 
figure  42),  about  six  inches  long,  fitted  on  one  side  at  right  angles 
with  a  fixed  cheek-piece  cd,  and  having  on  the  other  side  a  slid- 
ing cheek-piece  ef,  fitted  with  a  screw  for  fixing  it  where  re- 


BITS  89 

quired.  The  bar  ab  is  made  oval  in  the  transverse  section,  with 
the  greater  axis  about  one  inch,  in  order  to  displace  the  lips 
nearly  as  the  mouth-piece  does,  and  is  usually  graduated  through- 
out. 

If  this  gauge  be  placed  in  the  horse's  mouth  like  a  bit,  with 
the  bar  ab  at  exactly  the  proper  place  for  the  bit,  opposite  the  chin 
groove,  the  fixed  cheek-piece  cd  being  then  held  gently  up  to  the 
off  side  of  the  mouth,  the  operator  facing  the  horse's  forehead, 
the  sliding  cheek-piece  ef  may  be  shoved  up  close  enough  to  the 
cheek,  at  the  near  side,  not  to  displace  the  lips,  and  then  fixed  with 
the  screw.  Removing  the  gauge,  the  proper  dimension  for  the 
width  of  the  mouth-piece  may  be  read  off  the  scale  on  ab. 

The  instrument  is  also  fitted  with  a  rod  gh,  which  slides  up 
and  down  the  movable  cheek-piece  ef,  which  is  graduated  into 
inches  and  eighths  or  tenths  on  its  lower  limb.  This  contrivance 
enables  the  measurement  of  the  height  of  the  bars  to  be  taken. 
The  instrument,  adjusted  to  the  proper  width  of  the  horse's 
mouth,  is  placed  as  before,  with  the  bar  ab  exactly  opposite  the 
chin  groove,  but  underneath  the  tongue,  and  is  then  wheeled 
around  on  its  own  axis  until  the  upper  limbs  of  the  cheek-pieces 
stand  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  general  line  of  the  horse's  face. 
This  brings  the  lower  limbs  in  the  opposite  direction  towards  the 
neck,  and  the  rod  gh  is  then  shoved  up  until  it  presses  lightly  into 
the  chin  groove,  taking  care  that  the  gauge  stands  square,  .and 
that  the  mouth-piece  lies  equally  on  both  bars  of  the  mouth.  The 
rod  gh  is  then  screwed  fast  whilst  the  cheek-piece  ef  is  loosened 
altogether,  so  that  the  latter  may  be  removed  without  disturbing 
the  rod  gh;  the  height  of  the  bar  may  then  be  read  off  on  the 
lower  limb  of  ef. 


90  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

A  Prussian  trial  bit,  is  also  shown.  (B,  figure  42.)  This  con- 
sists of  two  cheek-pieces  into  which  may  be  fitted  in  succession 
spare  mouth-pieces,  the  width  being  varied  by  the  adjustment  of 
a  number  of  small  plates  pp,  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
removable  at  will  from  the  inside  to  the  outside  of  the  cheek- 
piece.  Having  the  width  of  the  mouth,  and  obtaining  the  height 
of  the  bars  by  means  of  the  mouth  gauge,  the  sliding  ring  pieces 
rr  may  be  shifted  until  the  upper  cheek-piece  has  the  required 
length.  There  only  remains  now  to  slide  the  rein  ring  ss  up  or 
down  until  the  proper  proportional  length  of  the  lower  cheek 
has  been  obtained.  The  curb  hooks  and  headstall  may  now  be 
attached  and  the  horse  tried  with  the  bit.  If  the  adjustment  is 
correct,  and  he  takes  to  the  bit  readily,  it  is  only  necessary  to  read 
off  the  dimensions  and  have  one  constructed  accordingly. 

There  is  no  lever  action  with  a  snaffle  bit.  There  is  a  slight 
pincer  action  but  the  power  applied  to  the  reins  is  conveyed  un- 
altered in  quantity  directly  to  the  bars  of  the  horse's  mouth. 

In  the  curb  bit  the  mechanical  advantage  of  lever  action  is  ob- 
tained, but  it  will  depend  on  the  manner  in  which  the  bit  and 
curb  chain  are  arranged,  whether  or  not  the  lever  action  obtained 
is  favorable  or  the  contrary.  //  the  curb  chain  pinches  and 
causes  more  pain  to  the  surface  of  the  chin  groove  than  is  caused 
on  the  bars  by  the  mouth-piece,  the  horse  will  poke  his  nose  for- 
ward and  fret.  If  the  amount  of  pain  on  the  bars  is  greater  than 
that  on  the  chin,  the  horse's  head  will  follow  the  rider's  hand. 

It  is  quite  possible  to  adjust  curb  bits  so  as  to  get  sufficient 
power  on  the  bars  without  undue  pain  on  the  chin  groove ;  in  this 
way  comparatively  mild  bits  are  made  sufficiently  reliable  in  their 
action  to  insure  efficiency,  with  a  minimum  of  discomfort  to  the 
horse.  After  being  properly  trained  the  horse  usually  obeys  the 


BITS 


rider's  indications  without  requiring  much,  if  any,  application  of 
painful  pressure  on  the  bars. 

The  important  points  to  be  determined  regarding  the  curb  bit 
are  the  length  of  the  cheek-pieces  and  the  relative  proportions  of 


Figure  43.  Double  curved  cheek-piece,  with  dimensions  of  upper  and 
lower  branches  proportioned  with  a  view  to  producing  the  mildest  form 
of  curb  bit. 

the  upper  and  lower  branches.  The  height  of  the  bars,  or  one 
and  three-fourths  inches  for  all  but  exceptionally  large  horses, 
has  been  adopted  as  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  mouth- 
piece rivet  to  the  point  of  the  upper  branch  where  the  curb  chain 


92  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

hook  is  attached.  If  the  top  of  the  upper  branch  is  formed  into  a 
ring,  which  is  the  ordinary  method,  the  curb  chain  hook  will  be 
near  the  lowest  point  of  the  ring. 

The  lower  branch  of  the  cheek-piece,  measured  from  the  center 
of  the  mouth-piece  rivet  to  the  center  of  the  lower  ring,  should  be, 
for  the  mildest  form  of  curb  bit,  twice  as  long  as  the  portion  of  the 
upper  branch,  included  between  the  center  of  the  mouth-piece 
rivet  and  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  curb  chain  hook 
(figure  43). 

These  dimensions  should  not  be  greatly  varied  whenever  the 
curb  bit  is  used  alone.  When  both  curb  and  snaffle  (bit  and  bri- 
doon)  are  used  the  lower  branch  of  the  curb  bit  may  exceed  in 
length  the  proportions  previously  prescribed. 

The  angle  at  which  the  reins  act  on  the  bit  is  a  matter  of  im- 
portance. In  the  case  of  a  lever,  the  action  is  most  favorable 
when  the  power  is  applied  at  a  right  angle.  If  the  bit  (figure  43) 
were  pulled  in  the  direction  of  c  it  would  have  no  other  effect  than 
to  pull  it  downwards  and  out  of  the  horse's  mouth,  unless  pre- 
vented by  the  headstall.  If  the  pull  were  made  in  the  direction  b, 
it  would  only  lift  the  bit  up  till  the  angles  of  the  mouth  stopped 
it.  In  neither  case  would  there  be  the  slightest  lever  action.  It 
is  therefore  evident  that  the  direction  a,  which  is  equally  remote 
from  both,  must  be  the  most  efficient,  and  this  is  precisely  at  a 
right  angle  to  the  lever. 

If  a  curb  bit  is  put  into  a  horse's  mouth  without  attaching  a 
curb  chain  or  strap  to  it,  and  the  reins  are  pulled  the  bit  will 
turn  around,  and  its  cheek-pieces  come  to  lie  in  the  same  line  as 
the  reins.  There  is  no  lever  action  whatever,  because  there  is  no 
prop  or  fulcrum.  The  same  thing  will  partially  happen  with  a 
very  loose  curb  chain  or  strap.  The  bit  is  then  said  to  "  fall 
through." 


BITS 


93 


The  opposite  fault  to  this  is  when  the  bit  "  stands  stiff,"  with- 
out any  play,  the  slightest  pull  on  the  reins  causing  the  horse 
pain  externally,  or  just  in  the  wrong  place.  This  stiffness  is 
usually  produced  by  a  tight  curb  chain  or  strap. 

The  upper  branch  of  the  cheek-piece  will  of  itself  cause  the  bit 
either  to  stand  stiff  or  fall  through,  if  it  exceeds  or  falls  short  of 
the  proper  length,  as  shown  in  figure  44,  where  de  represents  the 


Figure  44.    Diagram  to  show  action  of  curb  bit 

height  of  the  bars,  db  an  upper  branch  equal  to  de,  dc  one  of  only 
half  the  same  length,  and  da  one  double  the  length.  When  a  pull 
of  the  rein  acts  at  f  on  the  lower  branch,  the  curb  will  be  drawn 
closer  to  the  chin,  and  the  mouth-piece  back  against  the  bars ;  and 
supposing  the  amount  of  this  closing  up  in  all  three  instances  to 
be  equal,  the  bit  with  a  long  upper  branch  da,  will  assume  the 
position  ctdf.  It  will  be  stiff,  and  the  curb  acting  upwards  in  the 
direction  ea1,  will  press  on  the  sensitive  part  of  the  jaw. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  bit  with  the  short  upper  branch  dc,  equal 
half  de,  will  assume  the  position  cdf — that  is,  it  will  fall  through. 


94  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  curb  chain  or  strap  will  remain  in  the  chin  groove,  and  act 
forward  in  the  direction  ec1,  but  forming  a  very  acute  angle  with 
the  branches  of  the  bit  itself,  will  have  scarcely  any  value  as  a 
fulcrum. 

The  intermediate  upper  branch  db,  equal  de,  will  assume  the 
position  bldf ;  it  will  neither  be  stiff  nor  fall  through ;  the  curb  will 
remain  in  the  chin  groove,  acting  obliquely  forward  in  the  line  ebl, 
and  will  afford  a  sufficient  support;  and  the  lower  branch  of  the 
lever,  fd,  being  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one  to  the  upper  one, 
db}  there  will  be  sufficient  lever  action. 

In  order  to  prevent  a  bit  with  a  very  short  upper  branch  from 
falling  through,  riders  often  use  a  very  tight  curb  chain,  the 
result  of  which  is  that  much  of  the  action  is  transferred  from  the 
interior  of  the  mouth  to  the  chin;  also,  in  order  to  prevent  a  bit 
with  a  very  long  upper  branch  standing  stiff,  a  contrary  course  is 
adopted,  and  by  the  use  of  a  very  loose  curb  chain  the  bit  is  made 
to  fall  through. 

The  curb  chain  should  lie  in  the  chin  groove,  without  any  tend- 
ency to  mount  up  out  of  it  on  to  the  sharp  bones  of  the  lower 
jaw;  otherwise  it  ceases  to  be  a  painless  fulcrum,  and  renders 
the  best  constructed  bit  uncertain  in  its  action. 

The  only  way  to  attain  painlessness  of  the  curb  chain,  on  which 
so  much  depends,  is  by  placing  the  mouth-piece  as  nearly  on 
that  part  of  the  bars  opposite  to  the  chin  groove  as  possible.  It 
is  only  in  this  position  that  the  right  angle  triangle  is  secured,  as 
shown  in  figure  44.  There  is  also  another  reason,  for  that  part 
of  the  bars  which  is  best  suited  for  the  action  of  the  mouth-piece 
is  found  here,  just  above  the  tusks. 

There  is  considerable  irregularity  as  to  the  position  of  the 
tusks  in  the  mouth,  and  mares  seldom  have  any  at  all.  For  this 


BITS  95 

reason  it  is  difficult  to  prescribe  a  uniform  position  of  the  bit  by 
any  reference  to  the  tusks  except  that  the  mouth-piece  should  be 
above  and  not  touch  them.  For  the  majority  of  horses  the  proper 
position  will  be  attained  by  adjusting  the  cheek  straps  so  that  the 
mouth-piece  will  be  one  inch  above  the  tusks  of  the  horse  and  two 
inches  above  the  corner  incisor  teeth  of  the  mare. 

The  best  fitting  bit,  even  when  placed  in  the  right  position,  will 
not  act  properly  unless  the  curb  chain  be  made  correctly,  and  ex- 
actly of  the  right  length.  A  double  chain  worked  flat,  without 
rough  or  sharp  edges,  is  the  best  kind  for  general  use,  although 
leather  curb  straps  were  used  in  the  American  service  for  many 
years.  Straps  are  subject  to  stretching  and  contraction,  and  are 
apt  to  be  stiff  and  harsh  after  a  few  soakings  in  water,  but  they 
possess  one  great  advantage,  that  of  being  easily  replaced  or  re- 
paired. A  properly  made  chain  should  last  many  years  without 
need  of  repairs. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  prescribe  any  fixed  dimensions  for  the 
width  of  the  curb  chain.  It  should  be  made  to  lie  in  the  chin 
groove  without  altogether  filling  it  up.  If  very  narrow  it  will 
cause  pain,  and  if  very  broad  it  is  liable  to  mount  up  and  come  in 
contact  with  the  sharp  cheek  bones  at  every  pull  on  the  reins. 

The  curb  hooks  or  snaps  for  use  with  the  chain  should  be  flat, 
and  shaped  so  as  to  hold  the  chain  in  place  securely,  and  not  cut 
the  lips  of  the  horse. 

If  the  mouth-piece  is  of  exactly  the  same  length  as  the  width 
of  the  mouth,  the  curb  chain  or  strap  will  wrap  close  around  the 
chin,  pressing  equally  over  a  large  surface.  If  the  mouth-piece 
is  too  long,  the  chain  or  strap  will  bear  more  or  less  on  a  particular 
spot,  and  cause  a  sore  in  the  chin  groove. 

The  fleshy  tongue  is  much  less  sensitive  to  pressure  than  the 
bony  bars,  covered  only  with  a  very  thin  membrane. 


96  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  form  and  volume  of  the  tongue  may  be  varied  by  its  mus- 
cular action,  which  permits  of  extension,  retraction  and  elevation. 
It  helps  to  support  the  bit  and  receives  the  first  action  when  power 
is  applied  to  the  reins. 

If  a  perfectly  straight  bar  mouth-piece  of  moderate  thickness 
is  used,  this  resting  almost  wholly  on  the  animal's  tongue,  would 
be  the  lightest  form  of  curb  bit  that  could  be  devised.  If  by 
means  of  a  "  port,"  or  upward  curve  in  the  mouth-piece,  pressure 
is  removed  entirely  from  the  tongue  and  transferred  to  the  sensi- 
tive bars,  with  the  same  amount  of  lever  action  as  before,  the 
severest  form  of  curb  bit  results. 

Between  these  two  extremes  there  is  a  wide  range,  and  the 
whole  art  of  bit  construction  consists,  so  far  as  the  mouth-piece 
is  concerned,  in  determining  how  much  of  the  pressure  shall 
fall  on  the  tongue  and  how  much  on  the  bars. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  parts  of  the  mouth-piece  to  act  on  the 
tongue  and  bars  respectively  should  keep  their  places.  This 
requires  that  the  mouth-piece  fit  exactly  the  width  of  the  mouth, 
and  the  width  of  the  port  be  not  greater  than  the  width  of  the 
tongue  channel.  If  a  mouth-piece  with  a  port  be  too  long,  a  slight 
pull  on  one  rein  will  suffice  to  displace  it,  in  which  case  the  corner 
of  the  port  may,  by  being  pressed  into  the  tongue,  cause  great 
pain,  and  make  the  action  of  the  bit  very  irregular  and  unsatisfac- 
tory. If  the  port  is  wider  than  the  tongue  channel,  a  similar 
thing  occurs ;  if  the  port  is  narrower  it  fails  to  properly  admit  the 
tongue. 

The  height  of  the  port  depends  on  the  thickness  of  the  tongue 
and  sensitiveness  of  the  bars,  and  on  the  temperament  of  the 
animal,  as  well  as  the  use  to  which  he  is  to  be  put.  The  most 
severe  bit  it  can  ever  be  necessary  to  use  is  one  in  which  the  height 


Figure  45.  U.  S.  Cavalry  Bridle,  Model  1906.  Special  features : 
peculiar  arrangement  of  bridoon  head  stall;  half  buckles  and  leather 
keepers  for  all  strap  ends ;  half  cheek  pieces  on  the  snaffle  or  bridoon 
rings;  straight  cheek  pieces  of  curb  bit;  lip  strap  rings. 

7 


98  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

of  the  port  is  about  equal  to  its  width.  Any  higher  port  would 
strike  the  palate,  causing  more  or  less  pain,  and  induce  the  horse 
to  bore  with  his  head  away  from  the  rider's  hand. 


Figure  46.     U.    S.    Cavalry   Bridle ;   showing  how  bridoon   head-strap   is 
attached  underneath  crown  piece  of  curb  bridle. 

The  plane  of  the  port  should  coincide  with  the  plane  of  the 
upper  branches  of  the  cheek-pieces. 

The  United  States  Cavalry  curb  bit,  model  1906,  is  made  with 
straight  lower  branches  with  lip  strap  rings  set  in  rear.  The  lip 


BITS  99 

strap  running  from  the  rings  on  the  lower  bandies  up  to  a  small 
ring  at  the  center  of  the  curb  chain  serves  the  double  purpose  of 
holding  the  curb  chain  in  its  proper  place  and  preventing  the  horse 
from  turning  the  bit  around  in  his  mouth  by  throwing  up  his 
head.  Each  upper  branch  bends  out  on  a  gradual  curve  from  the 
mouth-piece  to  the  top  of  the  upper  ring.  The  curb  bits  are  of 
five  sizes  to  provide  amply  for  all  horses  likely  to  be  found  in  ser- 
vice. (Figures  45  and  46.)* 

The  arrangement  of  the  bridoon  on  a  separate  head-strap  adds 
to  the  security  and  strength  of  the  bridle  by  avoiding  the  attach- 
ment of  both  bits  to  one  head  stall.  If  by  accident  the  curb  head 
stall  breaks  the  bridoon  bit  remains  in  the  horse's  mouth,  and  if 
the  bridoon  head-strap  breaks  the  curb  bit  remains  intact.  The 
bridoon  mouth-piece,  of  which  there  is  but  one  size,  is  of  unique 
design  admirably  adapted  for  use  with  the  curb  bit,  or  alone  with 
the  watering  or  exercise  bridle.  (Figures  47  and  48.) 

In  some  bridles  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  headstall  are  sewed 
directly  to  the  bit,  but  in  military  bridles,  arranged  to  fit  many 
different  horses,  buckles  or  toggles  are  used  in  order  to  admit  of 
adjusting  the  bit,  and  also  to  permit  of  its  being  removed  for 
cleaning. 

The  subject  of  bits  has  received  spasmodic  attention  in  the  past, 
but  has  been  much  misunderstood,  and  as  a  consequence  the  gov- 
ernment arsenals  have  been  periodically  filled  with  tons  of  dis- 


*  The  double  reined  bridle  with  bit  and  bridoon  was  abandoned  in  the 
American  Cavalry  during  the  Civil  War.  Many  efforts  have  been  made 
to  reintroduce  double  reins  for  use  with  a  curb  bit  with  two  rings  added 
at  the  ends  of  the  mouth  piece.  After  forty-five  years  of  trial  and  experi- 
mentation of  many  bits  the  Cavalry  Board  has  recommended  a  return  to 
the  bit  and  bridoon  and  the  adoption  of  new  models  of  both  curb  and 
snaffle  (Figures  45  and  47)  which  possess  so  many  admirable  qualities  as 
to  commend  themselves  to  both  military  and  civil  riders. 


100 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDELS 


Figure  47.     Bridoon  with  reins  and  head-strap.     May  be  used  separately' 
from  curb  bridle  with  the  head-strap  or  by  attaching  to  a  halter. 


BITS  "roi 

carded  bits,  and  hundreds  of  animals  have  been  condemned  really 
because  indifferent  riders  could  not  handle  fresh  young  horses 
with  the  instruments  of  torture  issued  as  bits. 


Figure    48.     Showing    bridoon    attached    to    halter    for    use    as    watering 

bridle. 

The  bits  in  use  in  the  American  army  during  the  past  forty 
years  are  shown  in  figure  49,  Nos.  5,  6,  7  and  8,  are  the  various 
sizes  and  shapes  which  were  used  during  the  Civil  War  and  for 
some  years  thereafter.  The  high  port  of  No.  6  and  the  ring  bit 
(No.  5)  show  that  the  troopers  were  taught  that  great  severity 


Figure  49.     Cavalry  bits  in  U.  S.  Army  1862-1902. 


BITS  103 

was  necessary  to  conquer  their  mounts,  whereas  the  very  fact  of 
putting  such  instruments  in  the  average  mouth  had  the  effect  of 
causing  the  horse  to  become  frenzied  under  a  rough  hand. 

Nos.  i,  2  and  3  show  the  "  Shoemaker  "  bit,  which  was  in  use 
for  about  twenty  years,  and  which  was  abandoned  for  the  model 
shown  in  plate  49  as  No.  4  and  also  in  figure  43.  This  is  a  very 
mild  bit,  having  but  one  height  of  port  for  all.  The  only  varia- 
tion is  in  the  length  of  mouth-piece,  which  for  the  three  sizes  is 
four  and  one-half,  four  and  three-fourths  and  five  inches.* 

It  is  observed  that  the  bit  and  bridoon  are  used  generally  by 
European,  and  also  by  the  British  cavalry.  The  accurate  bitting 
and  training  of  their  horses  is  sufficient  evidence  to  establish  the 
great  value  of  the  combination  for  military  purposes. 

In  figure  50  are  shown  the  British  bits  (No.  i),  the  German 
(No.  2),  the  French  (No.  3),  the  Russian  (No.  4),  and  Austrian 
curb  bit  (No  5). 

The  British  curb  bit  (No.  i)  is  quite  heavy,  and  as  powerful 
as  the  "  Shoemaker  "  bit  abandoned  by  the  American  service.  The 
curb  chain  is  very  large,  and  the  bridoon  is  much  larger  than  such 
secondary  bits  usually  are.  It  does  not  compare  favorably  with 
the  other  equipment  of  the  British  cavalryman,  which  is  second  to 
none  in  Europe.  The  weight  of  the  two  bits  is  two  and  three- 
fourths  pounds. 

The  German  curb  bit  (No.  2)  has  a  hollow  mouth-piece  of  large 
dimensions,  and  is  intended  to  be  a  very  mild  bit.  The  cheek- 
pieces  are  straight,  except  at  the  bottom  there  is  a  slight  curve 

*The  horses  of  the  Fort  Leavenworth  school  squadron,  consisting  of 
four  troops,  were  measured  in  1895  with  an  Austrian  mouth  gauge  to 
determine  the  widths  of  their  mouths.  Nearly  all  measured  less  than  four 
and  one-fourth  inches.  Only  two  horses  measured  as  much  as  five  inches. 


IO4  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

to  the  rear  where  the  ring  is  attached.  The  curb  is  a  double  mail 
chain,  neatly  and  strongly  made.  The  bridoon  is  the  most  per- 
fect of  any  of  those  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  quality  of 
material  and  workmanship  is  of  the  highest  class.  The  weight 
of  the  two  bits  is  one  and  three-fourths  pounds. 

The  French  curb  bit  (No.  3)  is  well  made  and  mild  in  its  ac- 
tion. The  curb  is  a  flat  steel  mail  chain,  of  good  quality.  The 
bridoon  is  a  double-jointed  snaffle.  It  is  attached  to  the  head- 
stall by  toggles.  The  cheek-pieces  of  the  curb  bit  are  straight, 
and  contain  lip-strap  rings  on  the  lower  branch.  The  weight  of 
the  two  bits  is  two  pounds. 

The  Russian  curb  bit  (No.  4)  differs  from  the  others  in  being 
hooked  to  the  headstall.  The  headstall  to  which  the  snaffle  is 
attached  forms  the  essential  part  of  the  halter.  The  bridoon, 
which  is  a  double-jointed  snaffle,  is  attached  by  toggles.  The  up- 
per branches  of  the  curb  bit  are  provided  with  hooks  bent  out- 
ward ;  these  hooks  are  broad  and  flat,  and  are  passed  through 
small  steel  rings  in  the  lower  end  of  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  bridle. 
The  rings  are  shown  in  the  illustration  with  the  bits.  The  bit  is 
provided  with  lip-strap  holes.  This  curb  bit  has  the  longest  lower 
branches,  in  proportion  to  the  upper,  of  any  of  the  other  bits. 
The  weight  of  the  two  bits  is  one  and  three-fourths  pounds. 

The  Austrian  curb  bit  (No.  5)  is  very  heavy,  being  made  of 
steel,  with  solid  mouth-piece.  The  flat  mail  chain  curb  is  the  best 
of  its  class,  and  is  not  apt  to  be  broken  or  stretched  by  ordinary 
service  wear.  The  bridoon  used  with  this  bit  is  a  single-jointed 
snaffle  with  rings  and  half  cheek  guards.  The  Austrians  make 
nine  different  sizes  of  bits  in  order  to  provide  amply  for  accurately 
fitting  all  the  horses.  The  weight  of  the  curb  bit  shown  is  one 
and  five-eighths  pounds. 


Figure  50.     British  and  European  Cavalry  bits. 


IO6  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

In  comparing  these  bits  it  is  observed  that  there  are  no  very 
material  differences  in  those  used  in  Europe.  The  German  is 
the  mildest,  but  it  answers  the  purpose  fully  with  their  carefully 
trained  horses. 

Bits  should  be  made  of  the  best  materials  and  as  light  as  pos- 
sible. It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  cavalry  horses  are 
subject  to  exciting  conditions,  and  bits  of  sufficient  size  and  degree 
of  lever  power  must  be  retained  for  the  purpose  of  controlling 
animals  at  the  charge  and  in  the  resulting  melee. 

Reducing  the  amount  carried  in  the  horse's  mouth  may  not 
seem  to  be  a  very  important  matter  at  first  glance,  but  when  it  is 
considered  that  a  handicapper  may,  by  adding  or  taking  off  a 
pound  from  the  weight  carried  on  an  animal's  back,  entirely  upset 
all  calculations  as  to  the  result  of  a  race  between  animals  of  equal 
form,  it  ought  to  be  apparent  that  a  pound  more  or  less,  at  the 
end  of  his  neck,  makes  a  great  difference  to  the  horse. 


CHAPTER  V. 
BITTING  AND  TRAINING. 

End  and  Aim  of  Bitting. — The  Aids. — Principle  Governing  Bitting. — Effect 
of  Head  and  Neck. — Uses  of  Snaffle  and  Curb  Bits. — Dumb  Jockey. — 
Training  Halter.- — Running  Rein. — Establishing  Gaits. — Bending 
Lessons. — Jumping. — Use  of  Longe. — Selecting  and  Fitting  Curb 
Bit. — Fitting  and  Adjusting  Bridles. — Desirable  Standard  of  Training. 

The  end  and  aim  of  bitting  and  training  should  be  to  bring  about 
such  confidential  relations  between  rider  and  horse  as  to  cause  the 
slightest  wish  of  the  former,  when  indicated  through  the  aids,  to 
be  obeyed  without  constraint,  resistance  or  exhibition  of  temper. 

The  aids  in  riding  are  the  hands,  legs  and  reins,  which,  as- 
sisted in  a  minor  degree  by  the  whip  and  spurs,  serve  to  indicate 
the  will  of  the  rider  and  to  assist  the  horse  in  conforming  thereto. 

The  reins  serve  to  prepare  the  horse  to  move,  and  to  guide,  sup- 
port and  halt  him ;  their  action  should  be  gradual  and  in  harmony 
with  that  of  the  legs.  In  using  the  reins,  the  arms  should  have 
free  action  at  the  shoulder;  when  a  light  pressure  is  sufficient  to 
govern  the  horse,  the  action  of  the  hand  should  be  at  the  wrist; 
for  greater  pressure,  the  elbow  should  be  carried  back  without 
raising  the  hand. 

In  riding,  the  bridle  hand  should  be  kept  steady;  it  should 
oscillate  with  the  motion  of  the  horse's  head  but  at  the  same 
time  bear  lightly,  for  the*  bit  causes  pain  if  constantly  pressed  on 
the  bars,  gradually  destroys  their  sensibility  and  leaves  the  horse 
with  a  hard  mouth. 


IO8  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  hand  is  best  which,  by  giving  and  taking,  keeps  a  constant 
touch  on  the  bit  and  controls  the  horse  with  the  least  force. 
The  hand  is  light  when  there  is  an  almost  imperceptible  alternate 
feeling  and  easing  of  the  hand  in  harmony  with  the  motion  of  the 
horse,  the  delicacy  of  the  mouth  being  preserved. 

The  reins  act  to  direct  the  fore-hand ;  the  lower  legs  to  incite  ac- 
tion and  govern  the  movement  of  the  haunches.  The  pressure 
of  the  legs  should  be  an  elastic,  muscular  action ;  a  heavy  clinging 
pressure  or  thumping  with  the  heels  will  not  produce  good  re- 
sults. 

The  legs  assist  in  guiding  and  controlling  the  horse.  Closing 
the  knees,  without  pressure  by  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs,  tends 
to  steady  the  horse  in  position.  Carrying  the  lower  legs  slightly 
to  the  rear,  closing  them  equally  with  slight  pressure,  prepares 
the  horse  to  move  or  if  already  moving,  to  keep  him  up  to  the 
bit.  When  the  lower  legs  are  closed  with  greater  pressure,  behind 
the  girth,  they  urge  the  horse  forward.  Carrying  the  right  leg 
to  the  rear  and  closing  it  with  pressure,  causes  the  horse  to  move 
his  haunches  to  the  left.  Corresponding  action  with  the  left  leg 
causes  the  horse  to  move  his  haunches  to  the  right. 

Before  executing  any  movement  the  horse  should  be  gathered 
by  gently  drawing  in  the  reins,  carrying  the  lower  legs  slightly 
to  the  rear  and  closing  them  equally  with  but  slight  pressure. 

To  move  forward :  relax  the  pull  on  the  bit  and  close  the  legs 
with  pressure  behind  the  girth. 

To  decrease  the  gait  or  halt :  increase  the  pull  on  the  reins  and 
the  pressure  of  the  knees  and  thighs  and  relax  the  pressure  of 
the  lower  legs. 

To  cause  the  horse  to  back :  increase  the  pressure  of  both  reins 
and  legs,  carrying  the  lower  legs  to  the  rear  and,  if  necessary, 
leaning  back  in  the  saddle. 


BITTING    AND    TRAINING  IOQ 

To  change  direction :  Carry  the  hand  towards  the  side  to  which 
the  turn  is  to  be  made,  pressing  the  opposite  rein  on  the  horse's 
neck ;  close  the  knees  gently  and  apply  pressure  with  the  lower 
leg  on  the  side  to  which  the  turn  is  being  made. 

To  turn  on  the  forehand:  draw  in  the  reins,  with  enough  pull 
on  the  bit  to  keep  the  horse  from  advancing;  carry  the  hand 
gently  toward  the  side  to  which  the  head  is  to  move,  at  the  same 
time  carrying  the  lower  leg  on  that  side  to  the  rear  and  closing 
both  knees. 

To  cause  the  horse  to  side  step  or  passage:  carry  the  hand 
toward  the  side  to  which  the  passage  is  to  be  executed,  maintain- 
ing a  pressure  of  the  knees  and  enough  pull  on  the  bit  to  keep 
the  horse  from  advancing;  close  the  opposite  heel  and  cause  the 
haunches  to  move  with  the  forehand. 

A  knowledge  of  bitting  is  very  essential,  for  it  is  only  by  means 
of  it  that  perfect  control  of  the  horse  can  be  obtained  without  the 
infliction  of  unnecessary  pain.  It  is  especially  important  to  cav- 
alrymen, for  upon  its  application  depends  the  steadiness  of  the 
horse  in  all  maneuvers  on  the  drill  ground  and  the  field  of  battle. 

The  various  purposes  to  which  horses  are  applied  demand  of 
course  different  details  of  handling.  One  principle  applies  to  all, 
namely :  to  get  the  whole  lever  power  of  the  animal  to  act  in  con- 
junction with  its  weight  in  the  required  direction,  and  with  such 
a  degree  of  leaning  on  the  bit  that  all  its  motions  may  be  con- 
trolled without  interfering  in  too  abrupt  a  manner  with  its  action. 

The  head  is  the  lever  by  means  of  which  command  over  the 
neck  is  gained ;  its  size,  shape,  weight,  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  set  on,  all  exercise  more  or  less  influence.  A  very  large 
head  makes  it  extremely  difficult  to  get  the  horse  into  anything 
like  equilibrium,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  horses  with  such  con- 


HO  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

formation  are  always  heavy  in  hand,  for  more  depends  upon  the 
way  in  which  the  head  is  set  on  the  neck,  and  the  facility  thereby 
afforded  for  assuming  a  great  variety  of  positions,  than  on  the 
absolute  size  of  the  head  itself. 

In  considering  the  lever  action  of  the  head  and  neck,  it  is 
proper  to  remember  that  the  effect  produced  depends  not  only  on 
the  absolute  power  applied,  but  also  on  the  direction  in  which  it 
is  applied.  Considering  the  horse's  head  as  a  lever  which  is  to 
act  on  the  neck  and  bring  it  towards  the  rider's  hand,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  if  the  former  be  stretched  out  in  continuation  of  the  lat- 
ter, as  is  done  on  the  track  by  race-horses,  there  is  no  lever  action. 
In  the  same  way  if  the  horse's  head  is  brought  in  until  it  touches 
his  neck  or  chest  there  will  be  little  if  any  lever  action. 

The  lever  action  is  greatest  when  the  head  is  at  a  right  angle 
to  the  neck ;  the  more  it  departs  from  this  position,  in  consequence 
of  severe  bitting  or  other  causes,  the  less  will  be  the  useful  lever 
action.  With  the  great  majority  of  horses  the  physical  conforma- 
tion of  the  jaws  opposes  no  obstacle  to  the  head  assuming  this 
desirable  position. 

The  bit  should  be  regarded  as  a  means  of  communication  be- 
tween horse  and  rider,  as  well  as  an  instrument  which  may  check 
and  master  the  animal.  The  impression  it  conveys  may  vary 
from  the  slightest  sensation  to  the  most  intense  pain.  If  the 
mechanical  effect  of  the  bit  be  in  proportion  to  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  mouth,  it  becomes  a  rational  and  useful  instrument,  through 
which  the  wish  of  the  rider  may  be  indicated  to  the  animal. 

Rational  treatment  produces  better  results  than  harsh  means  in 
the  training  of  horses.  A  little  patience  and  expenditure  of  time 
on  the  primary  lessons  makes  matters  easier  later  on. 

There  are  many  books  which  prescribe  in  detail  all  the  various 


BITTING   AND    TRAINING  III 

steps  in  the  training  of  horses,  but  these  are  seldom  carried  out 
in  the  service  for  the  reason  that  men  are  not  available  for  the 
performance  of  this  important  work,  which,  to  be  valuable,  must 
be  not  only  progressive  but  continuous. 

The  period  of  training  will  of  couse  vary  with  the  amount  of 
instruction  the  horse  has  received  before  purchase.  Horses  fre- 
quently arrive  at  stations  in  such  a  forward  state  of  training  that 
all  they  require  is  to  be  familiarized  with  the  sound  of  firing,  trum- 
pets, and  other  unusual  noises  and  sights.  In  general,  however, 
the  new  horses  require  considerable  work  before  they  are  fit  for 
the  ranks. 

Occasionally  an  animal  will  be  found  to  resist  all  training.  It 
is  customary  in  the  American  service  to  apply  the  Rarey  system  to 
such  animals  until  brought  under  subjection.  This  system  is 
sometimes  applied  to  all  horses  in  order  to  finish  their  education, 
to  make  them  recognize  how  completely  they  are  in  the  power  of 
man,  and  to  give  the  troopers  a  knowledge  of  the  means  to  con- 
quer refractory  animals. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  horse  may  be  ridden  along  with  the 
others,  but  he  should  be  under  such  perfect  control  that  he  will 
leave  the  ranks  at  any  time  and  under  any  circumstances,  at  the 
will  of  the  rider,  without  refusing  or  crowding  towards  the  other 
horses. 

Practice  varies  slightly  in  different  organizations,  but  a  brief 
description  of  what  is  practicable  in  the  average  regiment  will  be 
given. 

Upon  arrival  of  new  horses  they  should  be  examined,  with  a 
view  to  determining  if  they  are  suffering  from  any  injury  or  dis- 
ease which  would  prevent  their  being  put  to  work.  They  should 
be  fed  but  little  grain  until  all  signs  of  the  feverish  condition  in- 


112  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

cident  to  change  have  passed  away.  Those  that  are  well  should 
then  be  distributed  amongst  old  and  gentle  horses  at  the  picket 
line.  While  the  hoof  numbers  are  perfectly  plain,  the  descriptive 
lists  should  be  compared,  and  the  horses  entered  in  the  troop 
records,  and  a  name  assigned  to  each. 

A  horse  should  be  allowed  to  grow  familiar  with  his  surround- 
ings, and  made  to  understand  that  he  is  perfectly  safe  from  any 
injury.  When  turned  lose  in  corrals  or  paddocks  an  attendant 
should  be  at  hand  to  prevent  the  old  troop  horses  from  injuring 
the  young  remounts.  Until  the  remount  is  accepted  in  the  herd 
by  the  old  horses  he  is  not  infrequently  subjected  to  much  annoy- 
ance. 

The  horse's  feet  should  be  handled,  and  he  should  be  led  into 
the  blacksmith  shop  while  other  horses  are  being  shod.  Horses 
are  often  severely  injured  when  frightened  at  the  noises  and 
sights  about  the  forge  and  anvil.  It  is  not  necessary  to  shoe  the 
horse  unless  the  ground  where  he  is  to  be  trained  is  rocky  or  hard, 
but  his  hoofs  should  be  rasped  down  enough  to  prevent  them 
from  splitting. 

Troopers  mounted  on  old  horses  should  lead  the  new  animals 
about  the  post  during  ceremonies  and  drills,  in  order  that  they 
may  not  be  frightened  at  the  band,  movements  of  troops,  flutter- 
ing of  flags,  and  many  other  things  not  to  be  seen  in  the  vicinity 
of  farms. 

The  horse  is  now  ready  to  begin  his  training  in  the  riding  hall, 
or  where  there  is  none,  on  a  ring  prepared  on  ground  selected 
for  the  purpose  at  some  place  where  the  attention  of  the  animal 
will  not  be  distracted  from  the  work  in  hand.  //  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  average  horse,  which  has  not  been  much  handled, 
will  be  nervous  and  apprehensive;  that  his  desire  to  avoid  strange 


BITTING    AND    TRAINING  113 

objects  and  unusual  sounds  will  lead  him  to  resistance;  that  this 
resistance  must  be  overcome  gently  but  firmly  and  the  horse  be 
made  to  understand  that  obedience  is  met  with  kindness  and  mis- 
conduct with  punishment.  Punishment  must  not  be  administered 
to  animals  which  are  merely  nervous,  or  playful  for  want  of  exer- 
cise ;  in  the  latter  case  great  care  is  needed  for  fear  that  a  simple 
breach  of  training  discipline  may  end  in  a  runaway  or  other  grave 
misconduct.  It  is  easier  to  train  a  new  horse  than  remove  the 
faults  from  a  spoiled  one. 

As  all  animals  are  ridden  before  being  accepted,  it  is  usual  to 
put  on  a  snaffle  bit  at  once.  This  may  be  attached  to  the  halter, 
but  for  training  new  horses  it  is  much  better  to  use  a  bridle  head- 
stall with  the  snaffle  bit  buckled  on,  so  that  it  can  be  adjusted 
properly  on  the  bars. 

The  snaffle  is  used  to  elevate  the  head  and  oull  it  around  later- 
ally, while  the  curb  bit  is  used  to  depress  the  head  and  to  restrain 
the  horse.  By  using  the  snaffle  to  elevate  the  horse's  head  and 
the  curb  bit  to  draw  back  his  chin,  the  rider  is  enabled  to  bend  the 
horses's  neck  just  back  of  the  poll  and  place  him  in  balance  and 
under  perfect  control  by  reason  of  the  lever  action  thus  obtained. 
By  the  same  means  the  rider  is  enabled  to  prevent  the  average 
horse  from  bringing  his  chin  back  against  his  chest — a  trick  fre- 
quently resorted  to  by  confirmed  bolters. 

If  the  young  horse  frets  and  fails  to  feel  or  take  the  bit  prop- 
erly when  mounted,  he  must  be  handled  very  gently,  and  allowed 
to  follow  the  lead  of  an  old  horse  quietly  at  a  walk  until  he  estab- 
lishes himself  in  the  new  conditions  of  equilibrium  sufficiently  to 
move  up  to  the  bit  without  leaning  upon  it,  refusing  to  feel  it,  or 
to  allow  it  to  exert  pressure  on  the  bars  of  his  mouth. 

If  the  horse  continues  unable  to  "  take  the  bit  "  properly  he 
8 


114  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

should  be  fitted  with  a  "  dumb  jockey,"  which  is  a  cross-tree  of 
wood  on  a  padded  surcingle.  The  reins  of  the  snaffle  bit  are  at- 
tached to  the  cross-trees  at  about  the  height  of  the  rider's  hand, 
and  straps  in  rear  are  carried  back  to  a  crupper,  to  prevent  the 
cross-tree  from  falling  forward.  The  straps  should  be  so  ad- 
justed that  the  animal  feels  the  pressure  of  the  mouth-piece,  and 
this  may  be  gradually  increased  from  day  to  day  until  he  arches 
his  neck  or  raises  his  head  enough  to  lighten  his  forehand.  This 
will  be  easily  determined  by  the  appearance  of  his  step.  The 
horse  rigged  in  this  manner  should  be  turned  loose  by  himself 
in  a  small  enclosure,  so  that  he  may  devote  his  brain  to  working 
out  a  solution  of  the  problem  before  him.  The  instruction  in  this 
way  should  not  be  continued  for  more  than  half  an  hour  at  a 
time,  for  if  left  until  very  tired  the  horse  loses  his  fear  and  leans 
so  heavily  on  the  bit  as  to  destroy  much  of  the  sensitive  feeling 
necessary  to  a  good  mouth.* 

A  useful  training  halter  may  be  prepared  by  attaching  a  strong 
strap  to  the  lower  part  of  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  bridle,  to  go 
around  the  nose  above  the  nostrils,  and  which  can  be  tightened 
under  the  chin  by  means  of  a  buckle  on  one  end  of  the  strap  in 
rear.  This  adjustable  noseband  may  carry  a  ring  in  rear  for  the 
snap-hook  of  the  longe,  or  an  iron  cavesson  with  a  nose-ring  may 
be  padded  and  riveted  on  in  front  to  the  noseband.  This  latter 
gives  the  longe-holder  a  powerful  instrument  for  controlling  the 
horse,  and  should  be  used  with  great  care. 

*  Under  the  advice  of  a  "  practical  horseman "  of  considerable  local 
reputation,  the  author,  some  years  ago,  turned  a  colt  loose  for  hours  at  a 
time  with  a  dumb  jockey,  well  tightened  up,  to  give  him  a  good  mouth. 
The  result  was  to  reduce  the  animal's  mouth  to  so  insensitive  a  condition 
as  to  seriously  impair  his  value. 


BITTING    AND    TRAINING  115 

Sometimes  the  horse  will  not  hold  his  head  in  a  proper  position, 
and  it  becomes  necessary  to  apply  a  running  rein,  which  acts 
directly  on  the  snaffle  bit,  independently  of  the  reins.  The  action 
of  the  running  rein  may  be  increased  or  reduced  without  the 
necessity  for  any  alteration  of  buckles  or  straps. 

A  running  rein  consists  of  a  strap  about  eight  or  ten  feet  long, 
of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  bridle  rein,  with  provision  at  one  end 
for  buckling  it  to  the  ring  on  the  near  side  of  the  saddle.  A  chin 
strap,  carrying  a  ring  sewed  on  in  rear,  is  buckled  into  the  snaffle 
rings  in  the  same  manner  as  a  curb  strap.  A  single  martingale, 
with  a  ring  held  at  the  height  of  the  point  of  the  shoulder  by 
means  of  a  strap  around  the  neck,  completes  the  parts  necessary 
to  operate  the  running  rein,  which  passes  from  the  ring  on  the 
left  side  of  the  saddle  through  the  martingale  ring,  thence  through 
the  curb  strap  ring,  back  through  the  martingale  ring,  and  then 
to  the  right  hand  of  the  rider. 

A  pull  on  the  running  rein  will  act  directly  on  the  mouth-piece 
and  draw  the  mouth  backward  and  downward  towards  the  horse's 
chest. 

The  rider  should  continue  the  work  on  the  track  or  in  the  school 
day  by  day,  varying  the  gaits  from  a  walk  to  a  trot,  and  finally  to 
the  gallop.  The  horse  should  be  taught  from  the  very  first  to  ex- 
ecute the  turns  by  the  pressure  of  the  outer  rein  upon  his  neck,  the 
mouth-piece  being  pulled,  if  necessary,  by  the  inner  rein.  The 
rider  should  avail  himself  constantly  of  the  use  of  the  aids  in 
turning,  increasing  or  decreasing  the  gaits  and  in  halting. 

Every  cavalry  post  should  have  a  measured  track,  so  that  dur- 
ing the  period  of  training,  the  young  horse  may  be  established  in 
his  gaits  of  walk,  trot  and  gallop  at  the  regulation  rate  per  mile, 
which  is  four  miles  an  hour  for  the  walk;  eight  miles  an  hour 


Il6  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

for  the  maneuvering  trot  or  trot  out  and  canter ;  twelve,  miles  an 
hour  for  the  maneuvering  gallop  and  sixteen  miles  an  hour  for 
the  full  or  extended  gallop.  If  the  horse,  going  at  any  gait, 
shows  signs  of  breaking  into  a  faster  gait,  he  should  be  checked 
at  once  and  given  his  head  only  after  he  has  steadied  himself  in 
the  original  gait. 

It  is  most  important  that  a  cavalry  horse  should  be  a  good 
walker.  His  steps  at  that  gait  should  be  long  and  regular,  with- 
out jogging.  To  accomplish  this  he  must  be  given  a  free  rein- 
to  have  his  head — since  he  can  walk  best  with  his  neck  extended. 
If  his  head  is  held  in  by  a  tight  rein,  at  this  or  any  other  gait,  it 
causes  him  to  shorten  his  steps  and  to  go  into  the  air  instead  of 
maving  rapidly  forward.  After  a  horse  has  been  trained  properly 
to  the  marching  walk,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  bring  him  to  a  short 
parade  step  by  holding  him  in  and  closing  the  legs  gently  to  force 
him  up  to  the  bit  without  halting  or  changing  his  gait.  This  ap- 
plies equally  to  other  gaits. 

Next  in  value  to  the  fast  walk  is  the  moderate  trot.  This  may 
be  modified  by  holding  the  horse  in,  to  a  slow  trot,  or  by  causing 
him  to  trot  out  by  extending  his  strides.  The  cavalry  horse  should 
be  taught  to  take  the  trot  from  a  walk  by  slightly  moving  or  rais- 
ing the  reins  and  closing  the  legs  until  he  breaks  into  the  desired 
gait ;  if  he  is  moving  at  a  gallop,  by  closing  the  legs  and  reining  in 
until  he  slackens  his  pace  enough  to  make  the  change  to  a  trot, 
when  he  should  be  quickly  established  at  the  rate  of  speed  desired 
and  then  given  a  light  rein.  Men  in  ranks  are  very  apt  to  ride  at  a 
trot  with  too  much  pull  on  the  reins,  particularly  after  coming 
down  from  a  gallop. 

Closing  the  legs  whenever  an  increase  of  gait  is  undertaken 
will  accomplish  better  results  than  thumping  with  the  heels,  for 


BITTING   AND    TRAINING 

the  latter  is  apt  to  cause  the  horse  to  jump  forward  and  dis- 
organize his  movements  for  some  time. 

The  gallop  used  in  ranks  is  generally  the  canter  or  hand  gallop. 
It  requires  much  patience  and  skill  to  secure  uniformity  of  pace  in 
a  squadron  at  the  gallop.  Some  horses  will  plunge  nervously  to 
get  in  advance,  while  others  may  require  some  effort  to  keep  them 
up  to  the  line.  This  is  where  the  extent  and  value  of  the  pre- 
liminary training  is  shown,  particularly  as  to  the  positions  of  the 
horses  in  ranks.  If  each  horse  could  be  made  to  lead  off  with 
the  same  foot,  any  inclination  of  the  horses  bodies  from  the  direc- 
tion in  which  moving  would  be  the  same  throughout.  If  one 
leads  with  the  right  and  another  with  the  left  foot,  and  they  are 
not  held  straight  in  ranks,  it  is  evident  that  a  boot  to  boot  touch 
soon  becomes  impracticable  and  the  troop  spreads  out.  Every 
organization,  sooner  or  later,  finds  itself  with  horses  which  gallop 
with  their  croups  well  over  to  the  side  with  which  they  are  lead- 
ing. Being  nervous  and  easily  interfered  with,  they  constantly 
change  their  leads  during  drills  and  move  their  croups  over  each 
time,  one  horse  thereby  occupying  about  as  much  space  in  ranks 
as  should  be  required  by  two.  The  only  way  to  avoid  this  is 
through  constant  hard  work  and  training  of  both  men  and  horses, 
to  the  end  that  each  horse  shall  gallop  practically  straight  to  the 
front  no  matter  with  which  foot  he  may  be  leading. 

When  a  horse  on  a  straight  course  is  leading  with  his  off 
(right)  fore  foot  the  right  shoulder  will  be  slightly  in  advance  and 
the  tendency  of  the  horse  is  to  carry  his  croup  over  to  the  right. 
The  reverse  is  the  case  when  he  leads  with  the  near  (left)  fore 
foot.  Some  horses  alternate  the  leads  with  frequency  while  other 
horses  will  invariably  lead  with  the  same  foot  and  appear  discon- 
certed if  made  to  change.  In  high  school  training  horses  are 


Il8  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

taught  to  change  the  lead  at  the  will  of  the  rider  even  to  the  ex- 
tent of  changing  at  every  stride.  This  is  not  at  all  necessary  for 
cavalry  purposes,  but  on  the  other  hand  if  a  horse  is  allowed  to 
lead  habitually  with  the  same  fore  foot,  the  corresponding  hind 
leg  will  have  more  than  its  proper  share  of  work  and  be  likely 
eventually  to  suffer  in  consequence,  if  much  of  a  load  is  carried 
on  his  back. 

To  cause  a  horse  to  lead  with  his  off  (right)  fore  foot  he 
should  be  collected  by  the  rider  gathering  the  reins,  closing  his 
legs,  increasing  the  pressure  of  his  left  heel ;  a  slight  play  of  the 
reins,  more  pronounced  with  the  right,  together  with  the  left  heel 
pressure,  will  induce  the  horse  to  make  proper  disposition  of  his 
hind  legs  and  lead  off  in  the  gallop  right.  A  contrary  course  will 
induce  the  horse  to  gallop  left,  taking  the  precaution  if  he  be  at  a 
gallop  to  bring  him  down  to  a  trot  before  making  the  change.  In 
the  riding  hall  or  on  a  curved  track,  the  horse  galloping  true 
leads  with  the  fore  foot  which  is  nearest  the  center,  and  the 
change  of  lead  is  naturally  effected  by  turning  about  and  moving 
around  the  track  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  horse's  balance  and  his  lightness  in  hand  depend  on  the 
proper  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck.  The  bending  lessons  serve 
to  render  the  head  and  neck  supple  and  to  make  the  horse  con- 
form to  the  movements  of  the  reins  and  yield  to  the  pressure  of 
the  bit ;  the  snaffle  bit  is  used  for  this  instruction. 

To  bend  to  the  right.  The  trooper  being  on  foot:  Take  a 
position  on  the  near  (left)  side  of  the  horse,  in  front  of  his 
shoulder,  and  facing  towards  his  neck ;  take  hold  of  the  off  (right) 
rein  with  the  right  hand,  close  to  the  bit  and  take 
the  near  (left)  rein  in  the  same  way  with  the  left  hand,  the 
thumbs  toward  each  other,  backs  of  the  hands  up ;  bring  the  right 


BITTING    AND    TRAINING  119 

hand  toward  the  body  and  at  the  same  time  extend  the  left  arm 
so  as  to  turn  the  horse's  head  to  the  right.  The  force  employed 
must  be  gradual  and  proportioned  to  the  resistance  met  with. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  bring  the  horse's  nose  too  close  to 
the  front  of  his  chest.  If  the  horse  moves  backward,  continue  the 
pressure  until  he  stands  still  and  yields  to  it  with  his  neck.  When 
a  horse  yields  after  resistance  he  generally  champs  the  bit;  he 
should  then  be  patted  and  encouraged,  and  allowed  to  resume  his 
natural  position  by  degrees.  The  bend  to  the  left  is  executed  in 
a  similar  manner,  the  trooper  taking  his  position  on  the  off 
(right)  side  of  and  facing  the  neck  of  the  horse. 

To  cause  the  horse  to  arch  his  neck.  Take  position  on  the  near 
(left)  side  of  the  horse;  cross  the  reins  behind  the  horse's  jaw; 
taking  the  near  (left)  rein  in  the  right  hand  and  the  off  (right) 
rein  in  the  left  hand  at  about  six  inches  from  the  bit  rings; 
cross  the  reins  and  apply  pressure  until  the  horse  gives  way  and 
brings  his  nose  in.  Prevent  the  horse  from  raising  his  head  by 
lowering  the  hands. 

To  cause  the  horse  to  lower  his  head.  The  trooper  being 
mounted :  Take  the  right  rein  in  the  right  hand  and  the  left  rein 
in  the  left  hand;  feel  lightly  the  pressure  of  the  bit  on  the  bars 
of  the  horse's  mouth ;  then,  holding  the  hands  low,  play  with  the 
bit  gently  drawing  in  the  reins  as  the  horse  lowers  his  nose. 
When  the  horse  yields,  and  brings  in  his  head  so  that  the  face  is 
about  vertical,  release  the  tension  of  the  reins. 

To  cause  the  horse  to  elevate  his  head.  The  trooper  being 
mounted :  Hold  the  reins  separately  as  prescribed  for  the  preced- 
ing exercise;  extend  the  arms  forward  and  make  light  pulls  up- 
ward upon  the  reins ;  when  the  horse  has  brought  his  head  to  the 
desired  position  lower  the  hands  slowly  so  that  the  horse  can 


I2O  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

lower  his  muzzle  and  then  gently  pull  in  the  reins  until  the  face 
of  the  animal  occupies  a  vertical  position. 

To  cause  the  horse  to  carry  his  head  to  the  right.  The  trooper 
being  mounted:  Hold  the  reins  separately  as  prescribed  for  the 
preceding  exercise ;  draw  in  the  right  rein,  carry  the  head  of  the 
horse  a  little  to  the  right,  using  the  left  hand  to  measure  the 
effect  of  the  right  and  keep  the  face  of  the  animal  vertical.  In 
time  the  head  should  be  brought  around  so  that  the  front,  still 
vertical,  shall  face  to  the  rear.  After  the  head  has  been  carried 
to  the  right,  it  is  returned  to  the  front  position  by  the  left  rein  sup- 
ported by  the  right,  the  vertical  position  of  the  head  being  main- 
tained by  a  play  of  both  reins.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  head 
may  be  carried  to  the  left.  In  all  these  movements  the  rider 
should  be  patient  and  satisfied  with  slow  progress. 

It  is  presumed  that  good  results  have  followed  the  lessons 
which  have  occupied  such  time  as  the  intelligence  and  progress  of 
the  animal  demanded.  The  animal  should  now  be  taught  to 
leap  the  ditch  and  hurdle.  For  this  purpose  he  is  taken  out  with 
a  good  safe  jumper,  and  led  quietly  across  ditches  and  over  such 
obstacles  as  present  themselves,  logs,  rails,  piles  of  earth,  brush, 
etc.  He  is  made  to  leap  them  at  a  slow  gallop,  care  being  taken 
to  vary  the  course  as  much  as  possible.  When  the  animal  ceases 
to  have  any  fear,  or  to  make  any  resistance  in  the  fields  and 
pastures,  he  should  be  taught  to  jump  the  bar  and  hurdle  in  the 
riding-school  or  on  an  enclosed  track. 

In  order  that  he  may  not  expect  to  be  led  over  all  the  time,  he 
should  now  be  equipped  with  a  longe,  or  rope  lariat ;  he  should  be 
taken  up  to  the  obstacle  by  a  dismounted  man,  giving  him  but  little 
rope  at  first,  and  he  should  then  be  made  to  jump.  If  necessary, 
another  man  may  go  in  rear  of  the  horse  with  a  whip,  to  touch  him 


BITTING   AND    TRAINING  121 

if  he  tries  to  come  back.  If  he  jumps  without  fear,  no  snapping 
of  the  whip  or  shouting  should  be  allowed,  else  he  will  connect 
these  in  his  mind  with  jumping.  The  longe  should  be  ordinarily 
attached  to  the  halter  ring,  but  few  horses  requiring  the  use  of 
the  cavesson  ring. 

The  training  should  be  continued  until  the  animal  performs 
everything  required  of  him  in  an  intelligent  manner  in  the 
school  and  outside.  During  this  period  he  should  be  accustomed 
to  the  saber  and  to  fire-arms  until,  without  fear  or  exhibition  of 
nervousness,  he  permits  both  to  be  used  by  the  mounted  trooper. 
He  should  be  ridden  near  the  pistol  targets  until  he  goes  equally 
well  to  the  right  and  left  and  between  the  targets  without  fear. 

The  horse  is  now  ready  for  the  curb  bit,  which  should  be  care- 
fully fitted  to  him  under  the  supervision  of  an  officer.  It  is  a 
common  thing  for  a  trooper  to  exchange  horses  and  he  usually 
takes  his  bits  as  part  of  his  own  equipment.  This  should  never 
be  allowed,  for  the  horse  once  properly  fitted  with  a  curb  bit 
should  be  ridden  with  that  bit,  or  one  of  the  same  size,  as  long  as 
he  remains  in  service. 

The  integrity  or  entireness  of  the  tongue  should  receive  careful 
attention  in  connection  with  bitting.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing 
to  find  a  troop  horse  with  his  tongue  cut  a  quarter  or  half  way 
across.  A  proper  bit  will  not  do  this  if  used  in  a  legitimate  way, 
but  almost  any  curb  bit  will  do  so  if  the  reins  be  used  for  hitching 
a  nervous  horse. 

A  bit  should  be  selected  and  placed  in  the  horse's  mouth  over 
the  tongue.  By  pressing  it  lightly  against  one  side  it  will  be 
seen  if  it  has  the  right  length  of  mouth-piece.  If  it  is  too  nar- 
row it  will  pinch  the  lips,  and  another  must  be  tried.  If 
too  wide,  a  measure  of  the  amount  which  projects  over  must  be 
taken,  and  a  mouth-piece  that  much  shorter  be  selected. 


122  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

The  selection  of  a  bit  of  proper  width  may  be  facilitated  by  slip- 
ping a  smooth  stick  into  the  horse's  mouth,  placing  it  opposite 
the  chin  groove,  and  then  bringing  the  thumbs  lightly  against 
the  horse's  lips.  Hold  the  hands  firmly  in  place  on  the  stick 
while  removing  it  from  the  horse's  mouth,  and  have  an  assistant 
cut  notches  opposite  the  ends  of  the  thumbs.  This  will  give  the 
length  of  the  mouth-piece  between  the  cheek-pieces. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  the  fitting  and  adjustment  of  the 
bridle  as  well  as  the  bit  or  bits.  A  headstall  should  be  selected 
in  accordance  with  the  size  of  the  head  of  the  horse.  The  throat 
latch  should  not  be  buckled  tight,  but  loose  enough  to  admit 
four  fingers  between  it  and  the  throat  so  as  to  avoid  pressure 
on  the  wind-pipe  and  large  blood  vessels.  If  a  single  reined 
bridle  is  used  the  cheek-pieces  should  be  of  such  lengths  that  but 
little  adjustment  of  the  buckles  is  required  to  cause  the  mouth- 
piece of  the  snaffle  or  curb  bit  to  occupy  its  proper  place  on  the 
bars,  which  is  about  one  inch  above  the  tusks  of  a  horse  and 
two  inches  above  the  corner  teeth  of  a  mare.  This  will  place  the 
mouth-piece  about  opposite  the  chin  groove.  The  curb  chain  or 
strap  should  wrap  smoothly  around  the  chin  groove,  and  be  loose 
enough  to  admit  one  or  two  fingers  underneath,  when  the  upper 
branches  of  the  bit  are  in  line  with  the  cheek-pieces  of  the  head- 
stall. 

When  the  double  reined  bridle  is  used  the  curb  bit,  buckled  to 
the  front  check  pieces,  should  occupy  the  position  already  de- 
scribed and  the  bridoon  should  be  attached  to  the  rear  cheek-pieces, 
shortened  up  enough  to  let  the  mouth-piece  of  the  bridoon  rest 
against  the  corners  of  the  mouth  without  wrinkling  the  lips.  If 
the  bridoon  is  attached  to  the  front  cheek-pieces  it  will  work 
against  the  curb  bit  instead  of  the  bars. 


BITTING   AND    TRAINING  123 

After  having  secured  a  bit  of  satisfactory  dimensions,  the  curb 
chain  should  be  carefully  adjusted.  In  adjusting  the  curb  chain, 
hook  it  on  the  off  (right)  side;  then  twist  the  chain  from  the 
loose  end  until  all  the  links  lie  smooth  and  flat  and  insert  one  of 
the  end  links  on  the  near  (left)  side  hook.  That  link  should  be 
selected  which  allows  the  check  pieces  of  the  bit  to  move  through 
an  arc  of  about  forty-five  degrees  when  pressure  is  applied.  If 
one  link  confines  the  movement  to  less  and  the  next  link  allows  a 
movement  of  more  than  forty-five  degrees  the  temperament  of  the 
mouth  or  manner  in  which  the  horse  carries  his  head  should  deter- 
mine which  of  the  links  should  go  on  the  hook.  If  the  horse 
has  a  naturally  high  carriage  of  the  head  he  may  be  allowed  the 
extra  link,  or  loose  chain. 

Horses  once  well  trained  seem  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  many 
forms  of  mouth-pieces,  but  it  is  well  to  remember  that  good  bitting 
is  characterized  by  a  total  absence  of  stiffness  or  painful  action, 
and  if  this  be  attained,  ready  obedience  to  the  rider's  hands  and 
legs  will  follow. 

If  a  trained  horse  opens  his  mouth,  acts  as  if  he  was  gagged, 
twists  his  head  sideways,  endeavors  to  force  the  hand  by  carrying 
his  head  low,  or  sticks  his  nose  high  in  the  air  to  remove  the1 
pressure  from  the  bars,  or  moves  backward  to  avoid  the  bit,  he 
gives  full  evidence  that  the  bit  either  does  not  fit  or  is  not  adapted 
to  the  temperament  of  his  particular  mouth.  Corrections  in  the 
character  and  adjustment  of  the  bit  should  be  immediately  made 
or  a  spoiled  horse  may  be  the  penalty  of  neglect. 

The  dimensions  and  proportions  prescribed  for  bits  should  be 
productive  of  satisfactory  results  in  most  cases.  Some  horses  will 
of  course  be  found  which  will  appear  to  defy  all  rules.  Some  may 
need  greater  severity  than  is  produced  by  the  bit  used  for  average 


124  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

horses.  If  the  lower  branch  be  lengthened  it  will  of  course  give 
greater  power,  but  cruel  contrivances  will  never  stop  a  confirmed 
bolter  and  sometimes  a  mild  bit  will  accomplish  completely  what 
severity  has  failed  even  to  modify. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  two  common  and  grave  de- 
fects of  bits  are  "  falling  through  "  and  "  standing  stiff  "  and  that 
good  bitting  lies  between  these  two  extremes;  that  nothing  is 
more  certain  than  that  any  horse  will  go  much  better  with  a  well- 
fitting  bit,  properly  placed,  than  with  one  not  suited  to  his  par- 
ticular mouth,  and  that  many  otherwise  fretful  and  dangerous 
horses  become  perfectly  tractable  if  properly  bitted. 

Many  young  horses  of  fair  promise  are  ruined  by  nervous  and 
impatient  troopers  who  expect  the  trained  manners  of  the  high 
school  before  the  animal  has  progressed  beyond  the  awkward 
action  of  a  kind-natured  but  ignorant  colt.  Rough  treatment  at 
this  stage  is  apt  to  make  the  animal  either  timid  or  vicious. 

It  may  be  well  to  explain  here  why  the  fresh  and  sensitive 
mouth  of  the  young  horse  conveys  the  sensation  of  hardness  to  the 
hand  of  the  rider,  and  why  the  same  mouth,  after  it  has  really 
been  rendered  more  or  less  callous  by  the  application  of  the  mouth- 
piece to  its  delicate  organization,  comes  to  be  called  tender. 

When  a  young  horse  is  mounted  for  the  first  time  the  equilib- 
rium of  the  animal  is  disturbed,  and  he  bores  on  his  bit,  trying  to 
acquire  a  new  point  to  lean  on — a  fifth  leg,  as  it  were ;  he  is  hard- 
mouthed.  When  the  animal  has  learned  to  carry  the  rider,  and 
acquired  an  artificial  equilibrium  suited  to  the  altered  circum- 
stances, he  no  longer  seeks  this  support,  and  the  mouth  is  called 
tender. 

If  a  horse  be  first  ridden  without  a  bit  until  brought  into  equilib- 
rium with  his  rider,  and  a  light  snaffle  bit  be  then  put  on,  his 


BITTING   AND   TRAINING  125 

mouth  will  be  found  very  sensitive,  and  it  will  be  several  days 
before  he  will  take  the  bit. 

From  what  has  just  been  stated,  it  will  be  easy  to  understand 
how  the  seat  of  the  rider  comes  to  exercise  so  great  an  influence 
on  the  horse's  mouth,  that  the  same  horse  will  go  light  with  one 
and  heavy  with  another  rider.  It  is  a  question  of  equilibrium. 
Lightness  or  heaviness  of  the  rider's  hand  depends  mainly  upon 
the  stability  of  his  seat.  One  rider  assumes  a  seat  that  favors; 
another,  one  that  more  or  less  impedes  the  efforts  of  the  horse  to 
get  into  balance.  Supposing  the  seat,  so  far  as  the  distribution 
of  weight  is  concerned,  to  be  identical,  the  unsteady  rider  will 
seek  a  support  in  the  reins,  and  the  horse  immediately  bores  on 
the  bit;  the  rider  with  a  steady  seat  has  a  light  hand,  and  the 
horse  is  therefore  tender-mouthed. 

All  horses  should  be  trained  first  with  the  snaffle  bit  until  they 
understand  thoroughly  the  use  of  the  bit  and  reins.  A  horse  that 
cannot  bear  the  pressure  of  the  bit  in  moderation  is  of  no  value 
for  saddle  purposes.  If  he  cannot  perform  satisfactorily  with  a 
snaffle  bit,  a  curb  bit  will  produce  that  fidgety  uneasy  action  called 
"  jibbing." 

The  conditions  surrounding  the  cavalryman  demand  that  he 
shall  be  provided  with  a  bit  or  bits,  which,  while  allowing  him 
to  guide  his  horse  in  the  lightest  possible  manner,  will  yet  pro- 
vide him  with  ample  power  to  bring  the  animal  to  a  halt  from 
the  charge  in  the  shortest  practicable  time.  A  double  reined  bridle, 
with  bit  and  bridoon,  is  the  most  rational,  humane  and  service- 
able arrangement  for  accomplishing  this  as  well  as  for  all  classes 
of  riding  which  involve  cross-country  work. 

A  trooper  must  ride  with  one  hand,  and  have  the  other  free  to 
use  his  arms;  therefore  the  horse  must  be  trained  to  obey  the 


126  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

pressure  of  the  reins  upon  his  neck,  and  the  legs  upon  his  flanks. 
This  is  the  most  essential  part  of  training.  The  bit  should  be 
mainly  used  to  moderate  the  gait,  to  halt  and  to  prevent  the  horse 
from  forging  ahead  of  the  line  or  bolting.  All  changes  of  direc- 
tion should  be  accomplished  mainly  by  pressure  of  the  outer  rein 
upon  the  horse's  neck.  In  this  way  the  horse  can  be  moved  on 
the  circumference  of  a  large  circle,  or  he  may  be  turned  to  the 
right  or  left  about  without  gaining  ground.  Even  with  rational 
bits  good  results  can  only  be  obtained  through  the  constant  exer- 
cise of  judgment,  patience  and  painstaking  care. 

When  a  horse  has  been  suppled  and  trained  until  the  rider  is 
enabled  to  devote  his  own  attention  to  the  performance  of  his 
duties  without  constantly  thinking  of  what  the  animal  may  do; 
when  the  trooper  feels  entire  confidence  that  at  the  proper  indica- 
tion from  him  the  horse  will  move  out  and  promptly  take  any 
gait  desired ;  that  he  will  proceed  in  any  direction  without  resist- 
ance ;  that  the  breaking  of  a  strap,  firing  of  a  gun  or  any  unfore- 
seen occurrence  or  accident  will  not  disconcert  the  animal,  and 
finally,  if  the  trooper  may  dismount  in  some  concealed  spot  and 
leave  the  horse,  without  tying,  while  the  surrounding  country 
is  carefully  reconnoitered  on  foot,  then  both  man  and  horse  have 
acquired  a  degree  of  efficiency  which  should  increase  the  chances 
of  success  in  campaign  of  the  organization  to  which  they  belong. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
SADDLES. 

Construction  and  Adjustment. — Materials  of  which  Constructed. — Under 
Surface:  Shape;  Size  Proportioned  to  Weight  Carried. — Upper  Sur- 
face: Size  Proportioned  to  Bulk  Carried. — Position  of  Saddle  on  the 
Horse. — Side  Bars:  Length;  Shape;  Adjustable. — Padding:  Pads; 
Blankets. — Cruppers. — Breast  Straps. — Rules  for  Selection  and  Ar- 
rangement of  Saddle  and  Pack. 

Saddles  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  shapes  depending  some- 
what upon  national  habit  as  well  as  upon  the  use  to  which  each 
particular  saddle  is  to  be  put.  The  jockey's  saddle  may  be  re- 
duced to  a  mere  contrivance  upon  which  to  hang  a  pair  of  stirrups. 
The  average  individual  requires  something  with  more  substance 
and  the  cavalryman  requires  a  saddle  very  much  heavier  than 
does  the  casual  horseback  rider. 

Cavalry  saddles  are  all  designed  with  reference  to  carrying 
heavy  weights,  for  no  nation  has  as  yet  discovered  any  method  of 
placing  cavalry  in  the  field  for  extended  operations  without  re- 
quiring individual  troopers  to  pack  a  large  amount  of  necessary 
equipment  and  personal  kit. 

The  serious  disadvantages  of  heavy  and  cumbersome  packs  are 
fully  recognized  in  every  army,  but  efforts  to  reduce  them  have 
not  always  resulted  favorably  to  efficiency.  There  are  certain 
things  necessary  to  enable  the  trooper  to  keep  himself  and  .his 
horse  in  serviceable  condition,  and  the  only  practicable  method  of 
reduction  in  some  of  these  is  by  substitution  of  lighter  material 
or  by  furnishing  transportation  of  sufficient  mobility  to  carry 
light  baggage  without  delaying  the  column. 


128  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

In  general  terms  the  nomenclature  of  the  saddle  (figure  51) 
comprises : 

The  pommel  or  front  part  above  the  bars ; 

The  cantle  or  back  part  above  the  bars ; 

The  side  bars ;  the  parts  running  along  the  sides,  which  rest  on 
the  horse's  back  and  to  which  are  attached  the  pommel,  cantle, 
seat  cover,  stirrups  and  cincha  attachments ; 

The  seat ;  the  part  embraced  between  the  pommel  and  cantle. 

The  materials  of  which  saddles  are  made  should  combine  great 
strength  and  moderate  elasticity,  with  the  least  possible  weight. 
Wood,  iron  or  steel  plates,  and  leather,  constitute  the  principal 
materials  of  which  saddles  are  constructed. 

Military  saddles  are  best  made  of  wood,  with  only  such  simple 
plates  of  metal  added  as  are  necessary  to  secure  wooden  parts  in 
place.  The  weight  to  be  carried  renders  it  imperative  to  econo- 
mize every  ounce  that  is  possible.  The  necessity  of  attaching  a 
pack  makes  the  question  of  neat  appearance  altogether  secondary. 

There  is  much  variation  in  military  saddles,  both  as  to  shape 
and  capacity  for  carrying  packs.:  They  are  nearly  all  provided 
with  large  side  bars,  some  of  whip  are  much  longer  than  others. 
Nearly  all  are  made  with  pommel  and  cantle  arches  sufficiently 
high  to  clear  the  horse's  withers  and  back. 

The  long  side  bars  enable  the  pack  to  be  attached  so  that  it  will 
not  rest  on  the  back,  but  they  are  a  disadvantage  when  made  so 
long  that  they  receive  any  of  the  muscular  action  of  the  fore  and 
hind  quarters.  The  short  and  broad  side  bars  answer  the  pur- 
pose when  the  pack  is  secured,  as  on  American  saddles. 

The  shape  of  the  side  bars  is  a  most  important  item,  and  the 
angle  which  they  make  with  each  other  must  be  fixed  to  suit  the 
average  horse  of  the  class  purchased  for  cavalry  service. 


POMMEL 


C/1NTLE 


Figure  51.    American  Cavalry  Saddle. 


130  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

Saddles  with  adjustable  side  bars  have  been  tried  with  some 
success,  but  are  not  likely  to  come  into  general  use.  The  advan- 
tage claimed  for  saddles  constructed  on  this  principle  is,  that  in 
campaigns  where  hard  marching  and  scanty  forage  prevail,  the 
horses  fall  away  rapidly,  and  the  loss  of  flesh  under  the  saddle  is 
not  always  uniform ;  the  ordinary  saddle  then  ceases  to  fit  and  the 
horse's  back  becomes  sore,  whereas  the  saddle  with  adjustable 
side  bars  may  be  altered  to  suit  the  varying  condition  of  the  horse. 

The  mechanical  arrangement  of  the  saddle,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  adjusted  to  the  horse's  back  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance ;  in  war  defective  saddles,  or  ignorance  as  to  their  proper 
adjustment  on  service,  are  as  much  to  be  feared  as  an  enterprising 
enemy. 

In  examining  the  saddle,  beginning  with  the  under  surface  or 
portion  coming  in  contact  with  the  horse's  back,  two  principal 
points  present  themselves  for  consideration:  its  size  and  shape. 

The  under  surface  of  the  saddle  should  bear  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible  the  same  relation  to  that  part  of  the  horse's  back  it  is  intended 
to  occupy,  as  a  mould  does  to  the  cast  that  is  taken  from  it, 
excepting  that  the  strip  lying  over  the  horse's  backbone  should 
remain  altogether  out  of  contact  with  the  saddle. 

As  regards  size  or  extent  of  the  under  surface,  the  greater  this 
is  with  a  given  weight,  the  less  will  be  the  pressure  on  any  given 
point,  provided  always  that  the  pressure  be  equally  distributed 
over  the  whole  surface.  No  part  should  come  into  closer  contact 
than  another,  for  the  result  of  concentrating  pressure  on  one  point 
or  line  is  very  apt  to  be  a  sore  back. 

The  upper  surface  or  seat  of  the  saddle  should  be  proportional 
to  the  bulk  of  the  rider,  and  the  undersurface  should  be  propor- 
tional to  the  weight  to  be  carried.  The  under  frame  of  the 


SADDLES  131 

saddle  should  not  extend  beyond  the  surfaces  where  it  has  to  sup- 
port pressure,  which  is  exercised  chiefly  in  a  perpendicular  direc- 
tion. The  absolute  weight  of  the  saddle  itself  must  also  be  con- 
sidered in  fixing  a  limit  of  size. 

The  form  or  shape  of  the  seat  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
If  the  ridge  of  the  saddle  be  horizontal,  imperfect  contact  of 
the  rider  results;  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  dip  this  ridge  and 
spread  it  into  a  more  or  less  concave  surface  where  the  weight 
of  the  rider  is  applied.  The  lowest  part  of  the  seat  should  be 
slightly  in  rear  of  its  center  to  permit  the  thighs  to  occupy  their 
proper  position;  then  the  rider  can  bring  the  greatest  amount 
of  surface  possible  of  himself  and  saddle  into  permanent  contact 
without  undue  constraint  on  his  part. 

The  saddle  may  fit  the  horse  perfectly,  yet,  through  an  improper 
arrangement  of  the  upper  surface,  or  of  the  stirrups,  may  be  de- 
cidedly unpleasant  for  the  rider. 

The  rider's  center  of  gravity  should  be  over  the  center  of  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  saddle,  in  order  to  transmit  the  pressure 
equally  to  the  rest  of  the  surface. 

The  saddle  is  calculated  to  fit  approximately  in  one  particular 
location.  It  should  be  so  placed  as  to  interfere  the  least  with  the 
action  of  the  muscles  of  the  horse,  and  this  condition  will  be  best 
met  when  the  saddle  is  located  on  the  broad  flat  tendon  covering 
the  center  of  the  horses's  back  (figure  2).  This  will  also  locate  the 
weight  near  the  perpendiculars  passing  through  the  centers  of 
motion  and  gravity,  and  therefore  cause  an  equable  distribution 
of  the  weight  of  both  horse  and  rider  on  all  four  legs,  both  in  a 
state  of  rest  and  motion  and  there  will  be  the  least  tendency  to  dis- 
turbance of  the  saddle  or  the  seat  of  the  rider  when  the  horse  is 
in  motion. 


132  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

The  point  where  the  center  of  the  saddle  should  rest  may  be 
found  practically  by  locating  the  fourth  and  fifth  short  ribs  from 
the  rear,  and  following  up  the  space  between  them  to  the  back. 
This  will  be  the  point  on  the  spine  near  the  center  of  motion, 
but  the  shape  of  the  horse  will  have  much  to  do  with  the  saddle 
remaining  in  this  position. 

If  the  saddle  be  properly  shaped  and  fits  the  back  of  the  horse 
it  will  have  less  tendency  to  move  from  this  position  than  if 
placed  elsewhere.  Great  care  should  be  exercised,  however,  not 
to  unduly  tighten  the  cincha  and  surcingle  with  a  view  to  hold- 
ing the  saddle  exactly  in  position.  When  the  cincha  is  first  tight- 
ened it  should  be  loose  enough  to  admit  a  finger  between  it  and 
the  belly.  The  cincha  has  a  tendency  to  work  loose  and  may  be 
tightened  after  the  horse  has  been  exercised  for  a  time.  The 
surcingle  should  always  be  a  little  looser  than  the  cincha. 

With  the  rider's  center  of  gravity  over  the  center  of  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  saddle  before  any  dead  load  is  put  on,  conditions 
are  changed  instantly  when  a  pack  is  added  at  either  pommel  or 
cantle.  It  is  here  that  experience  and  judgment  are  required  to 
so  adjust  the  various  portions  of  the  pack  as  to  least  disturb  the 
equable  pressure  of  the  whole  under  surface  of  the  saddle  and 
prevent  sore  backs. 

Aside  from  equalizing  the  weight  at  the  two  ends  of  the  saddle, 
the  question  of  distribution  of  pack  presents  itself  in  another 
way. 

The  heaviest  part  of  the  rider  is  above  the  horse's  back.  When 
the  pack  is  added,  if  piled  high,  as  is  the  custom  in  some  armies, 
it  will  make  the  horse  with  his  load  top-heavy. 

As  the  center  of  gravity  lies  below  the  middle  of  the  horse,  the 
adjustment  of  the  pack  should  he  such  as  to  prevent  elevating  this 


SADDLES  133 

center  any  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  For  this  reason 
the  saddle-bags,  lariat,  canteen,  rifle  and  saber  should  be  hung 
well  down  on  the  two  sides  of  the  horse,  and  the  pommel  and 
cantle  packs  strapped  down  near  the  ends  to  keep  them  close  to  the 
saddle.  The  inability  of  an  animal  to  recover  its  balance  with  a 
top-heavy  pack  has  been  frequently  demonstrated  in  service. 

It  is  necessary  to  place  a  yielding  substance  between  the  horse's 
back  and  the  saddle  bars.  This  may  be  done  by  padding  the 
under  surface  of  the  bars,  or  by  the  use  of  a  detachable  pad  or  a 
blanket.  Padding  is  usually  confined  to  civilian  saddles,  but  there 
are  several  nations  which  still  use  it  on  military  saddles.  The  ob- 
jection to  the  use  of  padding  in  saddles  designed  to  carry  heavy 
loads  is  that  it  dries  in  lumps,  draws  out  of  shape,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  much  difficulty,  usually  requiring  an  expert  saddler  to  re- 
arrange the  stuffing  to  meet  the  varying  conditions  of  the  horse's 
back  on  service.  Upon  arriving  in  camp  at  night  acccumulations 
of  dust  and  sweat  are  apt  to  be  neglected,  resulting  the  following 
day  in  abrasions  of  the  skin. 

Saddle  pads  made  of  hair,  felt  and  wool  have  all  been  tried 
very  thoroughly.  There  can  be  no  variation  from  day  to  day 
in  the  position  of  the  pad  on  the  back,  and  in  case  of  a  bruise  or 
sore,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  cut  a  hole  in  the  pad.  None 
of  the  pads  are  of  use  to  cover  the  animal.  The  hair  pad  is  the 
most  expensive  when  properly  made,  and  is  probably  the  best. 
The  felt  pad  while  useful  for  pleasure  riding  is  not  adapted  to 
military  service.  It  works  up  into  the  opening  between  the  bars, 
producing  much  discomfort  to  the  rider.  It  also  wears  out  rapidly 
in  particular  spots  where  pressure  is  permanent. 

The  saddle  blanket  was  adopted  for  American  cavalry  because 
it  has  stood  the  severe  trials  of  service  better  than  any  proposed 


134  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

substitute.  It  can  be  used  to  cover  the  horse  in  bad  weather,  and 
when  not  needed  by  the  animal  is  used  by  the  trooper  to  make 
his  bed  on  the  earth  a  trifle  less  hard.  The  blanket  does  not 
change  position  with  every  movement  of  the  saddle,  and  there- 
fore does  not  wear  off  the  hair  of  the  horse's  back.  The  blanket 
can  be  shaken  out  and  refolded,  so  as  to  present  a  fresh,  dry  and 
soft  surface,  which  is  much  appreciated  by  the  horse,  for  he  is 
made  more  comfortable,  just  as  the  trooper  is  by  shaking  out  and 
rearranging  his  bed  blankets  in  a  permanent  camp. 

The  only  disadvantage  possessed  by  the  blanket  is  its  tendency 
to  work  out  from  under  the  saddle,  behind,  caused  by  the  hair  of 
the  horse  pointing  to  the  rear,  opposed  to  the  smooth  under  sur- 
face of  the  saddle.  This  could  be  corrected  by  putting  an  under 
surface  of  sheep  skin,  felt  or  hair  on  the  saddle,  but  it  has  not  been 
regarded  as  a  sufficiently  serious  matter  to  demand  the  remedy. 

A  properly  folded  wool  blanket  will  seldom  cause  any  trouble 
in  winter.  Sore  back  are  then  very  rare,  and  when  they  do  occur 
may  nearly  always  be  traced  to  some  minor  injury  received  in  roll- 
ing, or  from  being  bitten  by  another  horse,  and  which  subse- 
quently becomes  aggravated  by  the  saddle. 

In  summer,  however,  the  heat  arising  from  the  use  of  heavy 
wool  blankets  is  a  prolific  source  of  puffed  backs,  which,  if  not 
properly  and  promptly  attended  to,  soon  result  seriously.  In 
warm  weather  troopers  are  much  more  apt  to  lounge  in  their 
saddles,  particularly  during  night  marches,  when  overcome  by 
fatigue. 

Expert  packers  recognize  this,  and  as  the  large  leather  bags, 
called  aparejos,  are  used  with  both  blankets  and  corona  of  wool, 
they  avoid  some  of  the  danger  from  heating  by  using  a  piece  of 
cotton  canvas,  which  is  placed  directly  on  the  back,  and  upon 


SADDLES  135 

which  the  blanket  and  corona  are  then  laid.  They  take  the  addi- 
tional precaution  to  leave  the  blanket  and  aparejo  or  pack  saddle 
on  the  animal  for  some  time  after  the  load  has  been  removed, 
to  enable  the  back  to  cool  gradually. 

Cruppers  no  longer  form  a  part  of  the  saddle  equipment  for 
general  use,  but  are  issued  in  isloated  cases  where  the  shape  of 
the  horse  causes  the  saddle  to  have  a  tendency  to  slip  forward  and 
bruise  the  withers.  Their  use  for  military  saddles  is  to  be  avoided 
when  possible,  as  the  great  weight  of  the  rider  and  packed  saddle 
is  apt  to  cause  the  crupper  to  lacerate  the  tail. 

Breast  straps  are  used  only  upon  a  few  ill-shaped  horses  saved 
from  condemnation  by  the  possession  of  some  good  qualities, 
counterbalancing  their  defective  girth. 

The  following  rules  should  guide  in  the  selection  and  arrange- 
ment of  saddles : 

First.  Each  horse  should  have  a  saddle  fitted  to  his  back  when 
in  medium  condition,  the  upper  surface  being  of  a  size  to  accom- 
modate the  rider. 

Second.  The  cincha  should  be  attached  oposite  the  center  of 
the  bearing  surface  of  the  saddle. 

Third.  The  stirrups  should  be  attached  slightly  in  front  of 
the  center,  so  as  to  be  under  the  seat  of  the  rider,  and  enable  him 
to  maintain  such  equilibrium  as  will  prevent  one  part  of  the  saddle 
pressing  more  than  another  on  the  horse's  back. 

Fourth.  The  pack  should  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  limit  con- 
sistent with  efficient  service,  and  be  so  adjusted  as  to  preserve  as 
far  as  possible  the  equilibrium  of  horse  and  rider,  and  to  prevent 
one  part  of  the  back  from  being  saved  up  at  the  expense  of  other 
parts. 

Fifth.  The  center  of  the  saddle  should  be  placed  on  the  back 
over  the  center  of  motion  of  the  horse. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
SEATS. 

Variety  of  Seats. — Manner  of  Holding  the  Reins. — Value  of  a  Well 
Balanced  Seat. — Safest  and  Best  Seat. — Balance,  Friction  and- 
Stirrups. — Seat  Depends  upon  Purpose  in  Riding. — Long  Seat ; 
"  Tongs-across-a-wall  "  Seat ;  Fork  Seat ;  Military  Seat. 

In  observing  riders  from  day  to  day  it  is  surprising  to  note 
what  a  variety  of  attitudes  are  assumed  by  them  in  the  saddle. 
The  conformation  of  the  rider  of  course  has  some  influence,  for  a 
short,  heavy-built  man  should  not  be  expected  to  present  the  same 
appearance  as  a  man  with  very  long  legs  projecting  down  below 
the  body  of  the  horse. 

Those  who  have  acquired  a  practical  knowledge  of  riding  early 
in  life  constitute  a  class  almost  distinct  and  apart  from  those  who 
have  deferred  mounting  horses  until  full-grown  men,  although 
many  of  the  latter  become  accomplished  horsemen.  Boys  who 
learn  to  ride,  and  have  no  fear  of  horses,  almost  invariably  sit 
well  down  in  their  saddles  ever  afterwards,  whereas  a  large  pro- 
portion of  those  who  have  never  mounted  a  horse  until  their 
muscles  and  bones  are  "  set,"  are,  unless  particularly  cautioned, 
very  apt  to  lean  forward  and  fail  to  maintain  close  contact  with 
the  saddle. 

This  latter  style  of  riding  is  nearly  always  accompanied  by  a 
heavy  hand  on  the  bit,  instead  of  that  easy  "  give  and  take  "  feel- 
ing on  the  horse's  mouth,  which  is  so  necessary  in  order  to  de- 
rive any  pleasure  or  comfort  in  the  saddle.  This  light  and  change- 
able feeling  of  the  horse's  mouth  is  incompatible  with  any  but  a 
secure  and  well-balanced  seat. 


SEATS  137 

The  necessity  for  relaxing  the  pressure  of  the  mouth-piece  on 
the  bars,  except  when  it  is  desired  to  gather  the  horse  in  hand, 
ought  to  be  apparent  to  any  thoughtful  person,  yet  more  horses 
are  ruined  for  saddle  purposes  by  a  neglect  of  this  than  from 
any  other  cause.  A  rider  with  little  confidence  in  his  seat  is 
almost  certain  to  depend  upon  a  good  steady  pull  on  the  reins 
for  assistance.  Hence  it  arises  that  when  such  a  person  mounts 
a  well-trained  saddle  horse  with  a  delicate  mouth,  accustomed  to 
regard  the  lightest  pressure  of  the  reins  as  an  indication  or  signal 
from  the  rider,  he  at  once  confuses  the  animal,  which  being  unable 
to  understand  what  the  pulling  means  begins  to  fret  and  prance, 
thus  making  the  already  insecure  seat  more  so. 

Several  methods  of  holding  the  reins  are  used  by  acknowledged 
masters  of  equitation.  The  manner  of  holding  the  single  and 
double  reins,  adopted  and  used  at  the  United  States  Army  School 
of  Application  for  Cavalry  and  Field  Artillery,  and  shown  in  the 
illustrations  (figures  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  58,  59,  and  60)  is 
simple,  easily  learned  and  an  effective  aid  towards  a  light  hand. 
In  retaking  the  four  reins,  when  a  snaffle  rein  and  curb  rein  are 
used  in  one  hand,  simply  turn  the  left  hand  with  back  up  and  the 
order  of  the  reins  should  be  as  shown  in  figure  54. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  lightness  or  heaviness  of  the 
riders'  hand  depends  mainly  upon  the  stability  of  his  seat,  and 
this  cannot  be  too  often  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  those 
learning  to  ride.  The  training  of  cavalrymen  should  be  pro- 
ceeded with  on  the  theory  that  recruits  must  first  acquire  a  con- 
fident seat  before  they  can  be  expected  to  comprehend  the  value 
of  a  light  hand. 

Aside  from  the  great  value  to  the  rider  himself  of  a  well-bal- 
anced seat,  the  stability  of  the  saddle  and  the  safety  of  the  horse's 


138 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 


back  are  also  involved.  It  is  treading  on  dangerous  ground  to 
prescribe  one  seat  as  applicable  to  and  the  only  correct  seat  for  all 
riding.  So  long  as  whole  nations  ride  certain  seats  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  those  used  by  other  nations,  it  will  be  seen  that  habit 
has  much  to  do  with  riding.  By  early  training  and  long  practice 
one  may  be  able  to  accomplish  the  end  for  which  he  mounts  a 


Figure  52.  Best  method  to  handle  a  single  pair  of  curb  reins,  because 
you  can  get  so  much  more  wrist  action  to  bear  and  the  reins  run  through 
more  of  a  grasp. 

horse  while  riding  a  seat  apparently  at  variance  with  all  orthodox 
ideas  upon  the  subject. 

The  safest  and  best  seat  is  that  which  permits  a  proper  use 
of  the  stirrups  in  combination  with  balance  and  friction.  If  proof 
of  this  were  required,  it  would  only  be  necessary  to  point  out  the 
fact  that  Indians  and  other  uncivilized  nations  accustomed  to  bare- 


SEATS  139 

back  riding,  which  is  the  perfection  of  balance  and  friction  riding, 
uniformly  adopt  saddles  and  stirrups  as  soon  as  contact  with 
other  riders  teaches  them  the  value  of  these  articles. 


Figure  53.  Shows  the  reins  being  taken  up,  sorted  and  evened.  The 
two  outside  reins  are  the  curb  reins;  the  two  reins  in  the  middle  are  the 
snaffles. 

The  varieties  of  seats  all  depend  primarily  upon  balance,  fric- 
tion, and  the  aid  of  stirrups.  Of  these  balance  is  by  far  the  most 
important,  otherwise  a  broken  stirrup  strap  or  loose  cincha  might 
produce  a  fall  from  the  horse.  The  combination  of  all  three,  with- 
out exclusive  dependence  upon  any  one,  will  give  the  most  satis- 
factory results. 


Figure  54.     Shows  the  reins  as  they  should  be  held  with  the  back  of  the 
hand  up,  when  no  special  signal  is  intended  for  the  horse's  mouth. 


Figure  55.     Shows  the  reins  grasped  by  the  right  hand  for  the  purpose  of 
lengthening  or  shortening  all  four  reins. 


Figure  56.     Shows  the  snaffle  reins  grasped  by  the  right  hand  to  shorten 
or  tighten  the  snaffle  and  take  away  curb  action. 


Figure  57.     Shows  the  curb  reins  grasped  by  the  right  hand  to  shorten  or 
tighten  the  curb  and  take  away  snaffle  action. 


142 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


The  purpose  for  which  the  rider  mounts  his  horse  determines 
to  a  great  extent  the  kind  of  seat  he  will  ride.  The  jockey,  in  the 
merest  apology  for  a  saddle,  with  his  knees  gripping  the  horse's 
withers  and  his  feet  shoved  home  in  light  steel  stirrups,  and  whose 
sole  duty  is  to  ride  to  orders  and  land  his  mount  first  under 
the  wire,  presents  few  points  of  resemblance  to  the  cow-boy,  who, 


Figure  58.  Shows  the  snaffle  reins  grasped  by  the  right  hand  in  front  of 
the  left  hand,  the  two  reins  crossing  underneath  the  thumb  for  the  pur- 
pose of  using  a  powerful  snaffle  action. 


in  a  fifty-pound  saddle,  and  riding  a  fork  seat,  fearlessly  ropes 
half-wild  cattle,  or  confidently  mounts  a  "  bucking  "  horse. 

Military  riding  cannot  be  properly  classed  with  any  other  kind 
of  riding,  because  its  object  is  entirely  different.  Park  and  road 
riding  present  no  resemblance  to  it,  because  in  these  the  individual 


Figure  59.  Shows  a  snaffle  rein  taken  up  by  the  right  hand  for  the  pur- 
pose of  getting  some  powerful  action  to  that  side.  The  other  reins  may 
be  taken  up  in  the  same  manner  if  so  desired. 


Figure  60.  Shows  the  four  reins  used  in  two  hands,  curb  below  little 
ringer  and  snaffle  above,  or  snaffles  can  be  used  in  one  hand  and  curb  in 
one  hand,  as  desired. 


144  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

taste  of  the  rider  dictates  all  his  appointments  and  the  gaits  of 
his  horse.  It  is  here  that  the  trained  and  many-gaited  saddle 
horse  finds  his  proper  field  of  action.  A  light  leather  saddle  is 
all  that  is  required,  whereas  in  military  riding  a  heavy  wooden 
frame,  capable  of  having  a  hundred-pound  weight  of  pack  at- 
tached, is  an  absolute  necessity.  A  military  saddle  also  has  a  high 
pommel  and  cantle,  which  detract  much  from  its  appearance,  but 
are  indispensable  because  of  the  pack. 

Hunting  involves  rough  riding  across  country,  but  the  seat  is 
not  limited  by  any  such  necessities  as  apply  in  the  case  of  military 
riding.  In  following  the  hounds  the  rider  has  usually  a  trained 
jumper,  and  his  riding  is  practically  over  a  straight-way  course 
involving  no  sudden  turns  or  halts  except  in  event  of  accident. 
Even  though  the  huntsman  keeps  well  up  with  the  hounds,  and 
may  at  times  find  himself  bunched  with  many  others,  it  is  vastly 
different  from  the  rushing,  thundering  noise  of  a  boot-to-boot 
charge  over  unknown  ground,  perhaps  in  a  cloud  of  dust  or 
smoke,  where  a  secure  seat,  entirely  independent  of  the  reins, 
is  an  absolute  necessity. 

In  any  particular  form  of  seat  all  men  do  not  appear  exactly  the 
same.  Aside  from  lack  of  uniformity  in  instruction  there  must  be 
some  reason  for  minor  variations  of  seat,  and  the  most  probable 
one  is  that  certain  forms  of  legs  are  adapted  to  grasping  the  horse 
correctly  without  undue  constraint,  whereas  it  is  quite  impossible 
for  men  with  legs  of  other  shapes  to  sustain  the  proper  grip  for 
prolonged  periods. 

There  are  several  well-recognized  varieties  of  seats  besides  the 
military  seat,  which,  however,  contains  the  essential  elements  of 


SEATS  145 

all  good  seats.*  The  various  seats  may  be  fairly  classed  under 
three  general  forms :  The  long  seat,  in  which  the  rider  raises  his 
thighs  almost  to  a  horizontal  position ;  the  "  tongs-across-a-wall " 
seat,  in  which  the  legs  are  held  straight,  with  the  toes  struck  out 
and  to  the  front ;  and,  finally,  the  fork  seat,  in  which  the  legs  are 
held  straight  down  beside  the  horse,  perpendicularly  to  the  ground. 
The  modern  American  jockey  seat,  with  the  knees  grasping  the 
horse's  withers,  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  long  seat. 

The  long  seat  is  not  adapted  to  military  saddles,  particularly  the 
American,  but  is  used  very  generally  for  hunting  and  cross-coun- 
try riding,  where  difficult  jumps  may  be  expected.  It  is  claimed, 
and  generally  conceded,  that  the  horse  held  between  the  legs  from 
the  calf  up,  with  the  knees  far  forward,  gives  great  security  when 
landing  after  a  big  jump.  In  jumping,  the  difficulty  of  remaining 

*  The  following  excerpt  is  from  a  letter  to  the  author  from  Mr.  Edward 
L.  Anderson,  probably  the  most  favorably  known  American  writer  of  the 
present  day,  on  the  subject  of  equitation. 

*********** 

MY  DEAR  GENERAL: 

I  have  been  re-reading  your  excellent  work,  and  I  find  that  your  training 
and  experience  have  induced  you  to  adopt  as  the  "  military  seat "  the  only 
seat.  It  is  that  of  Baucher,  it  is  that  I  have  always  advocated,  it  is  the 
seat  of  every  cavalry  officer  in  Europe.  The  difference  in  the  forms  of 
saddles  may  give  the  effect  of  slight  divergences,  but  the  principles  are  the 
same,  and  in  the  English  saddle  so  generally  affected  by  European  officers 
there  is  absolutely  no  change.  The  illustration  (figure  64)  is  absolutely 
perfect  for  all  purposes.  If  a  slightly  shorter  stirrup  is  used  in  cross 
country  riding  which  carries  back  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs  the  seat  itself 
is  not  affected,  and  the  shortening  of  the  stirrup,  only  used  with  open 
irons,  is  that  the  cross  country  rider  or  the  soldier  may  push  his  feet  home 
when  the  movements  of  his  horse  demand  that  they  should  take  extra 
precautions  in  keeping  their  feet  in  the  irons. 


10 


146 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 


in  the  saddle  increases  rapidly  as  the  obstacle  is  higher.  For  this 
reason  hunting  saddles  are  quite  often  provided  with  rolls  against 
which  to  brace  the  legs. 


Figure  61.     The  "  tongs-across-a-wall  "  seat. 

The  "tongs-across-a-wall"  seat  (figure  61)  is  not  adapted  to 
difficult  riding  of  any  kind,  for  a  lost  stirrup  or  broken  strap  will 


SEATS  147 

compel  the  rider  to  change  his  form  of  seat  or  fall  off.  It  may 
do  at  a  walk  or  canter  on  a  very  easy  gaited  animal,  so  far  as  the 
rider  is  concerned,  but  the  weight  is  transmitted  to  the  fore  legs 
in  such  a  way  as  to  have  not  only  a  retarding  effect  on  the  move- 
ments of  the  horse,  but  also  to  create  permanent  injury  to  the 
fore  legs.  This  is  a  serious  matter  in  active  service,  because  a 
very  large  proportion  of  horses  break  down  in  the  fore  legs,  while 
the  hind  legs  remain  uninjured.* 

Keeping  the  knee  straight  produces  much  weariness.  When 
the  trot  is-  taken  the  rider  instinctively  leans  back,  curving  the 
lower  part  of  his  spine,  and  sitting  well  up  on  the  cantle,  more 
on  the  back  part  than  on  the  bottom  of  his  buttocks.  To  main- 
tain this  position  the  feet  are  stuck  forward  and  outward.  The 
seat,  viewed  from  behind  (figure  62),  shows  it  to  be  not  only 
awkward  but  very  insecure  in  every  way.  With  the  feet  stuck 
forward  the  saber  cannot  be  properly  used  to  make  effective 
points,  nor  can  the  trooper  lean  out  of  his  saddle  to  make  cuts 
to  the  right  and  left.  It  is  emphaticaly  a  parade  and  not  a 
service  seat,  and  should  be  avoided  by  those  who  desire  to  attain 
perfection  in  horsemanship. 

In  the  fork  seat  (figure  63)  the  legs  are  carried  down  per- 
pendicularly to  the  ground,  and  the  rider  does  not  remain  seated 
on  his  buttocks,  but  rests  on  his  crotch  and  the  inside  of  his 
thighs.  In  this  position  the  rider  is  very  solid,  for  his  legs  em- 
brace the  horse  firmly  from  the  calf  up  to  the  crotch. 

*  After  General  SHERIDAN'S  raid  with  the  Cavalry  Corps  to  Richmond, 
an  expedition  of  about  thirty  days'  duration,  the  unserviceable  and 
broken-down  horses  were  gathered  together  in  a  park  at  City  Point,  to 
the  number  of  about  6000.  A  careful  inspection  of  these  animals  showed 
that  while  they  were  remarkably  free  from  bruised  withers  and  sore 
backs,  they  were  all  thin,  and  mostly  broken  down  in  front. 


148  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 

The  fork  seat  is  a  very  common  one  in  various  parts  of  America, 
as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  world.  While  by  no  means  the  seat 
for  all-around  purposes,  it  is  ridden  exclusively  by  whole  tribes 
and  nations  of  riders,  some  with  the  stirrup  short  enough  to 
hold  the  sole  of  the  foot  parallel  to  the  ground,  while  with  others 
the  stirrup  is  so  long  that  the  toe  is  bent  down  to  gain  contact 
with  the  tread.  It  is  condemned  for  military  purposes  as  un- 
suited  to  long  marches  at  a  trot,  although  it  is  frequently  used 
for  long-distance  rides  on  horses,  whose  habitual  gait  is  an  easy 
canter.  It  is  very  commonly  assumed  during  the  excitement  of 
the  charge  by  a  majority  of  troopers,  who,  in  order  to  use  the 
saber  effectively,  stand  in  their  stirrups.  The  mechanical  disad- 
vantage of  this  seat  arises  from  the  fact  that  when  the  leg  is 
straight  the  thigh  is  round  instead  of  flat  as  required  for  gripping 
the  horse. 

In  the  military  seat  (figure  64)  the  rider  should  sit  in  the 
middle  of  the  saddle,  taking  his  weight  upon  his  buttocks  equally ; 
the  body  and  head  erect  and  square  to  the  front,  with  shoulders 
well  back  and  the  chest  pushed  slightly  forward;  the  forearm 
of  the  bridle  hand  horizontal,  and  the  elbow  close  to  the  body 
without  pressing  against  it;  the  right  arm  hanging  naturally, 
with  the  hand  behind  the  thigh;  the  inner  surface  of  the  thighs 
in  close  contact  with  the  horse  and  saddle  from  the  knees  to  the 
buttocks,  the  direction  of  the  thighs  being  about  parallel  to  the 
horse's  shoulders;  the  lower  part  of  the  legs,  from  the  knees 
down,  should  fall  naturally,  and  be  completely  under  the  control 
of  the  rider  for  use  as  aids  in  directing  the  horse.The  stirrups 
should  be  adapted  to  the  seat,  and  the  stirrup  leathers  should  be 
of  such  length  that  when  the  ball  of  the  foot  rests  on  the  tread 
of  the  stirrup  the  heel  will  be  slightly  lower  than  the  toes,  and 
both  leathers  of  exactly  the  same  length. 


Figure  62.     "  Tongs-across-a-wall  "  seat,  rear  view. 


I5O  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

Stirrups  should  not  be  worn  so  long  as  to  render  the  tread  on 
them  insecure,  nor  so  short  as  to  cramp  the  legs.  In  either  case 
the  rider  is  to  some  extent  deprived  of  the  proper  use  of  his 
legs  as  aids,  and  is  not  able  to  maintain  a  correct  seat.  The 
position  of  the  foot  giving  the  greatest  satisfaction  is  that  which 
requires  no  muscular  effort  to  prevent  the  toe  from  turning  out, 
and  in  which  the  sole  remains  firmly  upon  the  tread  of  the  stir- 
rup when  the  horse  trots. 

With  the  military  seat  as  described,  the  rider  should  be  able  to 
bend  the  body  forward,  backward,  or  to  either  side  without  dis- 
turbing the  grasp  of  the  thighs  or  moving  the  feet.  He  should 
also  be  able  to  move  the  legs  below  the  knee  with  entire  free- 
dom without  altering  his  seat  or  disturbing  the  carriage  of  the 
body.  The  toes  should  not  be  turned  out,  as  it  causes  the  calves 
of  the  legs  to  grip  the  horse,  and  involves  unintentional  spurring 
every  time  the  horses  crowd  in  ranks.  By  keeping  the  feet 
nearly  or  quite  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  horse  the  rider  Is 
enabled  to  move  the  lower  part  of  his  legs  so  as  to  indicate 
through  them,  in  conjunction  with  his  hands,  what  movement  the 
horse  is  desired  to  execute.  The  rider  also  avoids  contracting  the 
very  bad  habit,  peculiar  to  Indians  and  Oriental  nations,  of  con- 
tinually pounding  the  Horse  with  his  heels. 

While  the  rider  should  sit  erect,  all  appearance  of  stiffness 
should  be  avoided,  for  rigidity  of  the  rider  is  incompatible  with 
the  supple  action  of  the  trained  saddle  horse  in  motion. 

When  mounted  bareback,  or  with  the  blanket  and  surcingle,  the 
trooper  sits  in  the  middle  of  the  horse's  back  with  the  same  seat 
practically  except  as  to  the  feet.  While  these  are  kept  parallel  to 
the  sides  of  the  horse,  the  toes  are  lower  than  the  heels,  and  point 
in  a  natural  way  forwards  and  downwards.  It  will  be  apparent  at 


Figure  63.     The  fork  seat. 

a  glance  that  to  keep  the  heel  lower  than  the  toes  without  a  stirrup 
would  involve  much  unnatural  constraint,  which,  instead  of  adding 
'security  to  the  seat,  would  seriously  impair  its  stability. 


152  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 

In  long-continued  trotting  exercises  on  the  ring  or  in  the  riding 
hall,  without  saddles,  the  tendency  of  the  rider  is  to  gradually 
work  forward  to  the  withers.  In  such  cases  the  rider  should  place 
his  hand  or  hands  on  the  withers  of  the  horse  and  move  his  body 
back  to  its  proper  place,  for  the  rider  feels  less  of  the  roughness 
of  the  trotting  gait  at  the  middle  of  the  back  than  when  seated 
near  the  animal's  withers. 

For  military  riding  much  uniformity  is  demanded  at  all  times, 
and  this  circumscribes  the  variations  of  seat  allowed  to  very  nar- 
row limits.  The  best  way  to  secure  this  uniformity,  which  is 
desired  not  for  the  sake  of  appearances  but  for  the  cavalryman's 
legitimate  performance  of  duty,  is  to  arrange  the  saddle  and  stir- 
rups so  that  the  average  recruit,  when  fairly  instructed,  will  find 
it  easier  to  sit  properly  than  any  other  way. 

The  cavalry  soldier  is  often  compelled  to  stand  in  his  stirrups 
in  order  to  make  effective  use  of  his  arms.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  place  the  stirrups  so  that  when  the  trooper  rises  he  can 
do  so  without  constraint  to  himself  or  disturbance  to  the  equilib- 
rium of  the  horse.  This  condition  is  best  secured  when  the  stir- 
rups are  placed  only  a  short  distance  in  front  of  the  center  of 
the  saddle,  for  then  the  rider  in  rising  does  not  have  to  move 
forward  and  can  resume  his  seat  with  ease.  Furthermore,  no 
muscular  action  is  required  to  keep  the  stirrups  in  position,  since 
they  support  the  legs  in  their  natural  fall. 

When  the  military  seat  is  once  acquired  the  rider  has  better 
control  of  the  horse  than  through  any  other  seat  which  can  be  de- 
vised. If  through  fear  or  temper  the  horse  swerves,  the  rider 
instinctively  grasps  the  animal  with  his  thighs,  and  the  stirrups 
being  directly  below  the  seat,  balance  is  not  lost.  If  the  horse 
stops  suddenly  there  is  no  tendency  to  shoot  over  his  head,  as 


SEATS 


when  the  feet  are  stuck  forward  and  the  legs  straight.     If  the 
horse  rears,  no  time  is  lost  in  bringing  back  the  feet  and  counter- 


Figure  64.     The  military  seat. 


acting  the  tendency  to  slip  off  over  the  cantle.     In  fact,  every 
sudden  or  unexpected  movement  of  the  horse  is  better  provided 


154  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 

for  in  the  correct  military  seat  than  any  other,  and  the  rider, 
appreciating  the  security  afforded  by  it,  is  less  likely  to  degenerate 
into  dependence  upon  reins  and  stirrups. 

The  military  seat  described  contains  all  the  elements  essential 
to  successful  riding,  either  for  pleasure  or  service.  It  varies  but 
little  in  the  regular  cavalry  of  all  military  nations,  and  the 
trooper  marching  upon  active  service,  fully  equipped,  with  a  sure 
prospect  of  hard  work  and  scanty  provender,  cannot  vary  this 
seat  with  the  same  impunity  as  the  casual  rider  seeking  recreation 
and  exercise. 

With  steel  stirrups,  such  as  are  used  by  British  and  European 
troopers,  the  stirrup  leathers  must  be  worn  short,  so  that  the  sole 
of  the  foot  will  not  lose  contact  with  the  tread. 

Confidence  in  the  saddle  depends  much  upon  the  first  lessons. 
As  soon  as  the  stirrups  are  crossed,  or  the  recruit  mounted  on  the 
blanket  and  surcingle  for  the  very  prosaic  operation  of  being 
shaken  into  a  good  seat,  everything  possible  should  be  done  to 
eliminate  faults.  Small,  gentle  horses,  with  easy  gaits  should  be 
selected  at  first,  but  when  sufficient  confidence  has  been  acquired 
to  perform  the  mounted  exercises  prescribed  for  recruits,  horses 
should  be  changed  daily.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  avoid 
having  beginners  hurt  or  frightened  by  horses  that  fall  over  back- 
wards, bolt  or  kick ;  such  things  are  not  easily  forgotten.  Many  a 
good  jockey  has  been  ruined  by  the  mental  impression  left  after 
witnessing  a  bad  fall,  and  any  one  who  has  personally  suffered 
from  an  accident  seldom  recovers  his  courage  for  difficult  riding. 

It  has  been  the  custom  in  the  American  army  to  teach  recruits 
to  ride  bareback,  or  with  a  blanket  and  surcingle,  before  allowing 
the  use  of  a  saddle.  Inasmuch  as  the  most  difficult  thing  to  attain 
is  balance,  and  the  stirrup  was  devised  for  the  purpose  of  assist- 


SEATS  I55 

ing  in  acquiring  and  maintaining  it,  it  would  seem  not  unreason- 
able to  first  teach  the  correct  seat  in  the  saddle  and  afterwards 
perfect  it  by  riding  without  a  saddle.  For  teaching  a  firm,  close 
seat,  and  giving  the  recruit  confidence  in  himself,  nothing  is  as 
good  as  the  trot  without  stirrups. 

After  acquiring  a  good  seat  recruits  will  be  ready  to  take  their 
changes  in  the  ranks ;  however,  timid  men  should  not  be  forced  too 
fast  or  made  to  mount  vicious  horses,  but  left  for  time  and  their 
own  ambition  to  overcome  their  fears. 

If  necessary  to  put  men  in  the  ranks  for  active  service  before 
preliminary  instruction  is  completed,  special  attention  must  be  paid 
to  them,  else  they  will  become  confirmed  in  their  faults  and  resent 
later  instruction  because  of  having  participated  in  a  campaign. 

The  herding  of  the  troop  horses  in  the  field  is  of  great  assist- 
ance in  making  bold  cross-country  riders  of  many  otherwise  timid 
men.  If  a  recruit  can  be  given  enough  confidence  in  his  seat  and 
horse  to  enable  him  to  stay  with  a  stampeded  herd  until  the  horses 
have  recovered  their  senses  sufficiently  to  be  rounded  up,  there 
need  be  no  fear  of  his  not  learning  to  ride. 

A  trooper  whose  seat  is  insecure  almost  invariably  makes  it 
manifest  in  the  horse,  which  then  becomes  nervous  and  uneasy  in 
ranks.  The  insecure  seat  causes  the  rider  to  constantly  jerk  or 
pull  on  the  reins.  When  this  fault  continues  it  is  often  necessary 
to  have  the  rider  sit  with  folded  arms,  while  another  trooper, 
mounted,  leads  the  horse  at  a  trot  around  the  hall  or  riding-ring 
for  prolonged  periods.  This  will  compel  the  offender  to  learn  to 
ride  without  depending  upon  the  horse's  mouth  for  support. 

There  is  a  vast  difference  between  good  riders  and  accomplished 
horsemen.  Many  of  the  former  possess  such  secure  seats  that 
the  meanest  of  brutes  cannot  dislodge  them  from  the  saddle,  and 


156  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 

yet  they  may  be  unable  to  train  or  to  appreciate  a  well-trained 
saddle  horse.  It  is  not  merely  the  ability  to  stick  on  which 
should  characterize  the  cavalryman.  He  should  by  all  means  be 
an  expert  horseman,  and  the  more  accomplished  he  becomes  in 
that  line  the  more  valuable  he  will  be  as  an  example  to  others; 
increase  of  pride  and  self-respect  will  urge  him  on  to  perfection 
when  he  discovers  his  ability  is  recognized. 

The  average  trooper  requires  a  great  deal  of  individual  instruc- 
tion to  prevent  him  from  contracting  habits  which  spoil  horses. 
It  is  a  most  noticeable  fact  that  when  a  beginner  gets  tired  and  ir- 
ritable he  almost  invariably  jerks  his  horse  to  punish  him  for  his 
roughness.  If  the  horse  stumbles  he  is  given  a  vicious  jerk  long 
after  any  possibility  of  sustaining  him  has  passed.  If  the  squad 
be  at  a  trot  the  horse  is  jerked  to  make  him  change  his  gait  while 
the  instructor's  back  is  turned. 

If  the  troop  is  ordered  to  trot,  there  will  always  be  one  or  two 
men  who  will  purposely  keep  their  horses  so  excited  that  they  will 
not  trot.  The  only  remedy  is  to  put  such  men  on  steady  old 
horses,  that  are  well  established  in  all  the  gaits,  and  punish  them 
for  any  repetition  of  the  offense. 

There  is  a  very  common  and  unsightly  fault  which  requires 
constant  attention.  This  is  the  habit  of  curving  the  back  and 
sitting  on  the  lower  part  of  the  spine.  This  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  a  drawing  in  of  the  chest  and  rounding  of  the  shoulders. 
This  position  is  utterly  incompatible  with  proper  military  riding, 
and  no  effort  should  be  spared  to  correct  it.  If  it  becomes  ap- 
parent that  ordinary  admonition  has  no  effect,  it  may  be  corrected 
by  causing  the  trooper  to  hold  a  flat  stick  passed  behind  his 
shoulders,  the  ends  being  held  by  the  hands,  opposite  the  shoulders, 
backs  to  the  rear.  This  of  course  necessitates  the  horse  being 


SEATS  157 

led  by  another  trooper.  Hump-backed  riders,  with  insecure  seats, 
not  only  detract  from  the  appearance  of  an  organization,  but  are 
an  actual  detriment  on  the  drill  ground  and  the  battlefield. 

The  military  seat  is  prescribed  with  minuteness  of  detail,  and 
while  it  may  be  impossible  for  all  men  to  conform  exactly  thereto, 
it  should  be  insisted  upon  in  the  cavalry  as  closely  as  possible. 
Many  men  after  acquiring  bad  habits  in  riding,  through  ignor- 
ance or  stubbordness,  are  quite  apt  to  imagine  that  they  cannot 
do  what  is  desired  of  them. 

It  is  not  possible,  under  the  conditions  surrounding  the  re- 
mount system  of  the  American  cavalry,  to  perfect  the  training  of 
all  horses  before  assignment,  as  is  done  in  some  European  armies, 
and  therefore  the  necessity  for  making  good  riders  of  the  men 
becomes  paramount.  In  any  event,  after  a  single  raid  or 
battle,  many  remounts  must  be  obtained,  and  if  a  trooper  has  to 
depend  upon  being  supplied  with  a  gentle,  well-trained  animal, 
he  may  prove  a  detriment  rather  than  a  valuble  factor  in  his  squad 
and  troop.  A  good,  firm  seat  should  be  demanded,  and  any 
trooper  who  cannot  acquire  it  should  be  transferred  to  a  dis- 
mounted arm  of  the  service. 

On  the  other  hand,  any  horse  which  persistently  refuses  to 
perform  his  work  in  a  gentle  and  reasonable  way  under  the  guid- 
ance of  careful  and  selected  troopers  should  be  cast  out.  A  horse 
with  many  blemishes  and  defects  which  will  do  his  work  honestly 
in  ranks  will  render  more  efficient  service  under  careful  treatment 
than  a  sound  and  well-bred  horse  which  keeps  a  trooper  always 
engaged  in  trying  to  keep  him  quiet,  and  to  preserve  his  own  seat. 
In  addition  to  worrying  his  rider,  a  nervous  horse  will  annoy  all 
the  men  and  horses  in  his  vicinity,  and  distract  their  attention 
from  the  performance  of  their  legitimate  duties.  A  horse  should 


158  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

not  be  condemned,  however,  until  it  is  assured  that  this  nervous- 
ness is  not  caused  by  the  insecure  seat  of  the  rider.  Men  who 
cannot  ride,  and  horses  which  cannot  be  ridden  and  properly 
trained,  are  useless  and  expensive  members  of  any  cavalry  or- 
ganization. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

MODERN  CAVALRY  AND  ITS  EQUIPMENT. 
American. — British. — German. — French. — Russian. — Austrian. — Japanese. 

The  organization  of  cavalry  has  undergone  but  little  change 
within  half  a  century,  but  modern  battle  experience  has  forced  the 
general  introduction  of  the  carbine  or  rifle  as  the  main  arm  of  the 
trooper.  While  regiments  maintain  their  distinctive  historical 
designations  as  dragoons,  hussars  or  lancers,  the  cavalry  of  all 
great  powers  has,  for  all  practical  purposes,  assumed  the  role  of 
dragoons. 

In  the  reorganization  of  the  American  cavalry  during  the  Civil 
War,  the  European  model  was  abandoned  and  each  regiment  given 
the  same  organization,  designation,  arms  and  strength.  The 
squadrons,  which  had  previously  comprised  two  troops,  were  or- 
ganized with  four  troops  and  the  number  of  squadrons  in  each 
regiment  reduced  to  three. 

British  and  European  cavalry  continue  the  small  squadrons  of 
two  troops  each,  some  regiments  comprising  four  and  others  five 
squadrons.  The  Japanese  cavalry  is  also  organized  on  these  lines 
following  the  German  organization.  With  these  differences  of 
organization  each  American  squadron  on  a  war  basis  is  nearly 
equal  to  a  regiment  of  European  cavalry  with  its  depot  squadron 
deducted. 

In  the  American  service  the  regiments  of  cavalry  are  all  armed 
with  rifle,  saber  and  pistol,  and  equipped  identically  the  same. 
There  is  no  distinction  as  to  heavy  and  light  cavalry,  and  the 


l6o  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

horses  are  purchased  as  nearly  as  possible  of  an  average  size. 
The  last  year  the  weight  of  horses  in  service  was  taken,  the  aver- 
age in  ten  regiments  was  1052  pounds. 

It  is  the  heavy  weight  of  trooper  and  equipment  that  causes 
the  demand  for  horses  averaging  about  one  thousand  pounds.  This 
prevents  the  purchase  of  animals  weighing  from  eight  to  nine 
hundred  pounds,  a  class  in  which  is  found  the  greatest  proportion 
of  hardy  saddle  animals  of  fine  conformation  for  cavalry  service. 

The  troopers  are  enlisted  only  up  to  a  weight  of  165  pounds, 
and  none  but  particularly  good  men  are  accepted  at  that  weight. 
Men  whose  weight  runs  from  130  to  150  pounds  are  the  best 
adapted  for  the  requirements  of  American  cavalry,  the  traditions 
of  the  service  demanding  a  great  degree  of  activity  in  dismounting 
to  fight  on  foot,  in  skirmishing,  and  in  remounting. 

The  cavalry  saddle  now  in  use  is,  both  as  to  form  and  material, 
the  result  of  long  continued  experiments  and  service  trials  in 
campaigns  extending  over  widely  separated  regions,  involving  ex- 
tremes of  cold  and  tropical  heat. 

The  saddle-tree  is  made  of  wood,  the  pommel  and  cantle  being 
of  beech,  each  made  of  two  pieces  framed  together  at  the  top  and 
glued.  The  two  side  bars  of  poplar  are  each  made  of  two  pieces, 
and  glued  together ;  they  are  then  glued  to  the  pommel  and  cantle, 
and  secured  with  screws. 

Iron  pommel  and  cantle  arcs  are  fastened  to  the  side  bars  with 
rivets ;  an  iron  pommel  plate  of  semi-circular  shape  is  fastened  to 
the  front  of  the  pommel,  and  an  iron  cantle  plate  is  fastened  to  the 
front  of  the  cantle. 

Two  stirrup  strap  hooks  made  of  wrought  iron,  with  the  lower 
edges  inclined  from  the  horizontal  upward  and  to  the  front,  are 
made  to  swing  loosely  in  iron  straps  which  are  let  in  and  fastened 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT 


161 


to  the  side  bars.     The  tree  is  smooth,  and  painted  with  white  lead 
before  the  rawhide  cover  is  put  on  to  strengthen  it  (figure  65). 

The  top  covering  is  secured  in  place  with  rawhide  thongs  pass- 
ing through  holes  in  front  and  rear  of  the  pommel  and  cantle,  and 
over  the  covering,  and  the  top  and  bottom  covers  are  sewed  to- 
gether with  light  thongs  of  the  same  material  (figure  66). 


Figure  65.     Cavalry  saddle  tree  before  raw-hide  cover  is  put  on. 

The  tree  is  then  covered  with  fair  collar  leather.     There  are  no 
leather  skirts  to  the  saddle. 

Two  brass  rings  are  attached  in  the  front  ends  of  the  side  bars ; 
a  brass  shield,  with  the  size  of  the  seat  stamped  on  it,  is  fastened 
on  the  pommel;  brass  guard  plates  or  ovals  are  fastened  on  the 
cantle,  and  pommel  over  the  mortises,  for  the  coat  straps.  Two 
foot  staples  for  coat  straps,  are  placed  on  the  front  of  the  pommel 
and  two  carrying  brass  rings  on  the  rear  of  the  cantle.  Two  foot 
staples  are  fastened  to  the  side  bars  through  the  rear  girth  straps 
for  attaching  the  saddle-bags.  The  saddle-bag  stud  is  fastened  to 
the  saddle  through  the  cantle  arc. 
ii 


1 62 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


The  service  saddles  are  issued  in  three  sizes:  Nos.  i,  2  and  3, 
the  length  of  the  seat  being  respectively  eleven,  eleven  and  one- 
half  and  twelve  inches.  The  lengths  of  the  bars  correspond  with 
the  length  of  seat,  but  all  the  other  dimensions  are  the  same  for  all 
trees. 

To  form  a  cincha  attachment,  two  quarter  straps,  made  of  har- 
ness leather,  are  passed  over  the  pommel  and  cantle  arcs,  to  which 
they  are  riveted ;  safes  of  leather  are  fastened  under  the  rings  to 


Figure  66.     Cavalry  saddle  covered  with  raw  hide. 

prevent  sores  from  tight  girthing ;  two  cincha  straps  are  sewed  in 
these  rings,  one  for  each  side. 

The  cincha  is  made  of  strands  of  hair  rope  knotted  at  the  ends 
into  iron  rings  with  leather  safes  underneath. 

The  stirrups  are  of  hard  wood,  five  and  one-half  inches  wide 
and  four  and  one-half  inches  deep,  with  a  hood  of  thick  harness 
leather  riveted  on.  Stirrup  straps,  without  sweat  leathers,  are 
used  with  the  stirrup. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  163 

Six  coat  straps  are  passed  through  the  mortises  and  foot 
staples.  Leather  stops  are  riveted  on  to  limit  the  play  of  the 
straps. 

The  long  boot  for  carrying  the  carbine  or  rifle  is  hung  under 
the  left  leg.  This  method  throws  a  great  deal  of  weight  on  the 
pommel,  is  not  comfortable  for  the  rider  and  interferes  with  the 
proper  use  of  the  left  leg  and  foot,  but  it  has  been  adopted  be- 
cause the  long  rifle  with  bolt  action  cannot  be  conveniently  car- 
ried in  the  short  carbine  boot  in  rear  of  the  right  leg.  (Figure  51.) 

The  saber  is  attached  to  the  saddle  on  the  right  side  by  small 
straps,  one  of  which  passes  through  the  rings  on  the  front  end  of 
the  bar  and  the  other  through  the  cincha  ring. 

The  weight  of  the  average  kit  and  equipments  complete  is  about 
ninety  pounds. 

In  much  of  the  wild  country  where  the  cavalry  has  been  on  duty 
the  troopers  were  required  to  carry  all  they  needed  for  a  scout  of 
thirty  or  sixty  days,  except  rations,  on  their  horses. 

The  American  cavalry  saddle  is  of  the  same  general  form  as 
that  used  during  the  Civil  War  and  compares  most  favorably 
with  those  in  use  by  the  more  prominent  military  nations  as  re- 
gards strength,  durability,  and  packing  capacity. 

It  has  been  in  use  for  forty  years,  and  has  stood  the  severest 
tests  of  active  field  service  that  the  varied  climate  and  character 
of  the  country  demanded.  It  must  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  this 
saddle  that  when  properly  fitted  and  adjusted  very  few  sore  backs 
occur,  and  when  through  accident  or  carelessness  a  back  is  in- 
jured, it  may  be  cured  while  continuing  the  horse  in  service  by 
removing  or  rearranging  the  pack  and  so  folding  the  blanket  as  to 
guard  the  bruised  or  wounded  part. 

The  weight  of  the  arms  and  equipments  is  practically  the  same 


164 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


for  all  troopers,  therefore  the  strong  horses  are  selected  for  the 
heavy  men,  in  order  that  all  the  animals  may  have  the  same  chance 
of  withstanding  the  fatigues  incident  to  field  service. 


Figure  67.     Trooper  dismounted,  showing  near  side  of  horse  with  packed 

saddle. 


The  summer  work  is  done  frequently  with  a  much  reduced  load, 
but  in  the  severe  weather  of  the  northern  plains  in  midwinter 
both  the  weight  and  bulk  of  pack  are  very  great. 

The  total  weight  carried  by  the  horse  may  be,  and  frequently  is, 
increased  by  the  addition  of  rations  for  the  trooper  and  grain  for 
the  horse.  It  may  be  easily  seen  that  the  manner  in  which  this 
load  is  secured  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  165 

The  overcoat  is  tightly  rolled  and  strapped  on  the  pommel  with 
three  straps.  The  bed  blanket  and  a  suit  of  underclothes,  tightly 
rolled  inside  of  the  shelter  tent  with  the  nose  bag  slipped  over  one 
end,  constitutes  the  cantle  pack.  When  side  lines  are  carried  they 
are  laid  on  top  of  this  pack,  the  whole  being  secured  to  the  saddle 
by  three  cantle  straps. 

The  ends  of  the  pommel  and  cantle  packs  are  always  bent 
downward,  the  heavy  articles  put  in  the  bottom  of  the  saddle- 
bags, and  the  rifle  and  saber  hung  well  down  on  the  sides  of  the 
horse.  The  result  of  this  combination  is  to  keep  the  horse's  center 
of  gravity  nearly  as  low  as  in  nature,  so  that  the  saddle  seldom  has 
any  tendency  to  turn,  as  would  be  the  case  if  everything  was  piled 
upon  the  horse's  back. 

Figure  67  shows  a  cavalry  horse,  near  side,  equipped  for  ordin- 
ary field  service.  The  rolled  lariat  is  hung  to  the  near  cantle 
ring  by  the  snap,  which  is  used  to  attach  it  to  the  halter  ring 
when  the  horse  is  picketed,  or  by  a  small  strap  specially  issued 
for  the  purpose. 

Figure  68  shows  the  off  side  of  the  horse  with  the  trooper 
mounted. 

When  the  troopers  dismount  the  rifles  are  habitually  removed 
from  the  boots.  In  this  way  a  well  disciplined  command  is  not 
so  apt  to  be  disconcerted  by  a  sudden  attack  as  would  be  the  case 
if  the  guns  should  remain  on  the  horses. 

The  saber  remains  attached  to  the  saddle,  but  the  rifle  and  pistol 
are  always  carried  by  the  trooper  when  dismounted  to  fight  on 
foot. 

Cartridges  and  the  pistol  are  carried  on  the  belt  around  the 
trooper's  waist.  Extra  ammunition,  horseshoes  and  nails,  ra- 
tions, currycomb  and  horse  brush  are  distributed  in  the  saddle- 
bags. 


i66 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


The  method  of  linking  the  horses  together  when  righting  on 
foot  is  shown  in  figure  69.  The  link  strap,  attached  on  the  left  side 
to  the  lower  ring  of  the  bit,  is  snapped  to  the  halter  ring  of  the 
next  horse  on  the  left  of  numbers  one  and  two;  the  bridle  reins 


Figure  68.     Cavalry  trooper,  off  side  of  horse,  with  packed  saddle. 


of  number  three  are  held  by  trooper  number  four  who  remains 
mounted. 

No  other  nation  has  ever  fought  its  cavalry  on  foot  to  such 
an  extent  as  was  done  in  America  during  the  Civil  War  and  since. 
This  experience  taught,  that  in  order  to  follow  up  a  line  fighting 
dismounted  in  rough  country,  through  and  over  obstacles,  it  is 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT 


i67 


necessary  to  link  the  heads  of  the  horses  firmly  and  close  together. 
They  lead  much  better  and  do  not  become  tangled  up  in  each 
other's  bridles.  Even  when  properly  and  carefully  linked  to- 
gether, horses  require  much  drill  before  they  can  be  conducted 


Figure  69.     Showing  linked  horses   of  set  of  fours,   dismounted  to  fight 

on  foot. 

rapidly  from  place  to  place.  Horses  in  columns  of  fours  should 
be  linked  so  that  their  heads  will  not  be  more  than  eighteen 
inches  apart. 

While  the  cavalry  equipment  is  used  for  all  military  purposes, 
at  the  military  academy  instruction  is  given  in  the  use  of  the 
double  reined  bridle  (bit  and  bridoon)  and  the  ordinary  hunting 


1 68  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

and  polo  saddle  in  order  to  familiarize  cadets  with  their  proper 
use  (figure  70). 

THE   BRITISH    CAVALRY. 

The  British  cavalry  is  composed  of  dragoon  guards,  dragoons, 
hussars  and  lancers.     All  are  armed  with  the  rifle  and  saber,  and 


Figure  70.     West  Point  cadet  equipped  for  polo. 

the  lancers,  in  addition,  carry  the  lance.  The  equipment  and  ac- 
cessories composing  the  pack  vary  according  to  the  service,  which 
for  this  body  of  troops  includes  a  wide  range,  because  of  the  ex- 
tent of  the  colonial  system. 

The  British  cavalry  saddle  (figure  71  and  figure  72)  is  made 
with  long  wooden  side  bars  of  beech,  and  narrowed  towards  the 
rear  ends,  where  they  are  covered  with  leather  to  prevent  chip- 
ping. The  front  arch  is  of  channeled  steel,  having  slots  for  the 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS  -EQUIPMENT 


169 


wallet  straps ;.  the  rear  arch  is  of  beveled  steel,  with  curved  spoon 
cantle,  both  arches  being  riveted  on  to  the  side  bars.  The  links  or 
plates  for  attaching  the  stirrup  leathers  are  placed  on  the  side 
bars  about  three  inches  from  the  front  arch. 


Figure  71.     British  Cavalry  saddle  showing  covered  ends  of  bars. 

The  leather  seat  is  laced  to  the  arches,  and  supported  under- 
neath by  broad  webbing,  crossed.  Leather  flaps,  or  saddle  skirts, 
are  secured  to  the  side  bars  with  screws. 

Fair  leather  is  used  for  both  bridle  and  saddle.  The  girth  is 
made  of  leather. 


Figure  72.     British  cavalry  saddle,  side  view 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT 


171 


Since  the  South  African  war  the  British  have  been  continually 
experimenting,  under  the  direction  of  the  Inspector  of  Cavalry, 


Figure  73.     British  Hussar  with  rifle  on  back,  with  butt  of  gun  resting  in 

bucket. 

with  a  view  to  perfecting  the  armament  and  equipment  of  their 
mounted  forces.     For  a  time  the  old  method  of  carrying  the  car- 


1 72 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


bine  or  rifle  on  the  horse  was  abandoned,  and  the  arm  carried  on 
the  trooper's  back,  with  the  butt  of  the  rifle  resting  in  a  boot 
or  bucket  (figure  73).  This  new  method  was  soon  abandoned 


Figure  74.     British  saddle  showing  long  rifle  boot  or  bucket.  . 

and  a  long  boot  or  bucket  adopted,  in  which,  the  rifle  is  carried 
on  the  right  side  and  adjusted  so  that  the  butt  projects  to  the 
rear  of  the  trooper's  elbow  (figure  74). 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT 


173 


The  manner  of  packing  the  kit  and  carrying  the  sabre  are  shown 
in  figure  75. 

Wallets  are  attached  to  the  pommel,  over  which  is  strapped 
the  cloak  and  a  pair  of  ankle  boots,  one  on  each  side.  In  the 


Figure  75.     British  packed  saddle,  near  side. 

wallets  are  carried  the  horse  brush,  currycomb,  underclothes,  pipe 
clay,  brushes,  blacking,  etc.  The  sheepskin  in  rear  contains  the 
stable  jacket,  trousers,  gloves  and  picketing  gear.  The  water 
bottle  hangs  under  the  right  end  of  the  skeepskin. 

The  pack  appears  to  be  snugly  and  tightly  adjusted,  and  in  the 
"  light  service  order  "  it  is  reduced  to  a  moderate  limit. 


174  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 

The  double-reined  bridle  with  bit  and  bridoon  is  used,  and  a 
pipe-clayed  halter  rope  takes  the  place  of  a  leather  strap. 

On  foreign  service,  where  the  field  uniform  is  worn,  "  putties  " 
— leggins — are  used  instead  of  knee  boots,  and  the  shoes  shown 
in  the  illustration  are  removed  from  the  pack.  Efforts  are  being 
made  to  still  further  lighten  the  burden  on  the  horse,  which  varies 
between  225  and  290  pounds,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  in- 
dividual trooper. 

British  officers  have  recently  had  opportunity  to  observe  the 
value  of  dismounted  fire  action  of  cavalry  armed  with  magazine 
carbines.  Their  South  African  experience  has  caused  them  to 
recognize  as  clearly  as  Americans,  that  horsemen  do  not  cease  to 
be  cavalry  because  they  can  dismount  and  fight  on  foot.  Target 
and  skirmish  records  show  that  cavalrymen  shoot  quite  as  well 
as  infantrymen,  and  in  war  they  have  never  failed  to  charge 
mounted  when  circumstances  justified  it. 

The  work  of  the  British  cavalry  on  duty  in  the  colonies  is  much 
like  that  of  the  American  cavalry  on  the  frontier,  and  their  equip- 
ment and  kit  are  carried  in  a  somewhat  similar  way. 

The  horses  are  usually  attached  to  the  picket  line  in  front 
and  to  the  ground  in  rear  by  heel  ropes.  Whether  this  is  better 
than  the  American  plan  is  not  known,  but  in  either  case  constant 
watchfulness  is  necessary  to  prevent  horses  from  injuring  them- 
selves by  entangling  their  legs  in  the  hitching  ropes.  It  takes  a 
long  time  for  most  horses  to  learn  how  to  stand  quietly  at  a  ground 
picket  rope,  or  when  grazing  attached  to  a  lariat.  By  winding  a  rope 
about  the  heel  a  fine  horse  may  in  a  few  minutes  reduce  himself 
to  an  utterly  unserviceable  condition,  requiring  weeks  for  re- 
cuperation. A  heel  gall  or  rope  burn  is  almost  invariably  fol- 
lowed by  a  rough,  unsightly  cicatrix.  The  difficulties  arising  from 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  175 

such  accidents  in  the  field,  in  addition  to  the  wider  range  for 
grazing,  induced  American  officers  many  years  ago  to  teach  all 
cavalry  horses  to  herd  whenever  the  proximity  of  the  enemy  did 
not  prevent  it. 

THE  GERMAN    CAVALRY. 

The  German  cavalry  still  retains  the  distinctive  titles  of  cuiras- 
siers, uhlans,  dragoons  and  hussars,  but  the  only  difference  be- 
tween them  is  in  the  weight  of  men  and  horses.  The  cuirass  is 
only  worn  on  occasions  of  ceremony,  and  when  the  supply  on  hand 
is  exhausted  it  will  not  be  renewed. 

In  heavy  cavalry,  cuirassiers  and  uhlans,  the  average 
weight  of  the  horses  is  1083  pounds,  and  the  troopers  187  pounds. 
In  the  light  cavalry  the  horses  average  866  pounds,  and  the 
troopers  143  pounds. 

All  German  cavalry  regiments  are  armed  with  lance,  saber  and 
carbine.  Officers,  first  and  vice-first  sergeants  and  trumpeters 
do  not  carry  the  lance  or  carbine,  but  are  armed  with  pistols. 
There  is  some  variation  in  the  saber  issued  to  different  regiments, 
but  the  lance  is  the  same  for  all.  It  consists  of  a  hollow  steel 
tube  with  a  four-edged  point  of  forged  steel  and  a  shaft  of  cast 
steel.  The  length  of  the  lance  is  ten  feet  six  inches,  and  its 
weight  is  4.36  pounds.  The  carbine  is  the  same  in  all  regiments. 

Four  patterns  of  saddles  were  formerly  in  use,  but  at  the 
present  time  all  the  cavalry  is  equipped  with  the  army  saddle, 
which  is  made  in  five  sizes  to  suit  horses  of  different  conforma- 
tion. The  smallest  size  is  issued  only  for  service  in  South 
Africa. 

This  saddle  consists  of  a  wooden  tree  with  wooden  arches, 
strengthened  by  iron  plates  and  supported  by  angle  irons. 


Figure  76.     Front    view,   mounted    German    trooper,    Dragoons    of    the 

Guard. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


177 


Between  the  arches  is  laced  a  leather  seat.  To  the  bars  are 
attached  panels  stuffed  with  wool,  and  secure  by  pockets  laced 
over  the  fans  or  ends  of  the  bars. 


Figure  77.     Near  side  view,  mounted   German  trooper,   Dragoons  of  the 

Guard. 

The  leather  saddle-skirts,  with  knee  pads  stuffed  with  hair, 
are  attached  to  the  arches  and  also  to  the  wallets,  which  are 
strapped  on  the  front  or  pommel  arch. 
12 


178  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

The  girths  and  stirrup  leathers  are  attached  by  means  of  D's 
on  the  bars.  The  stirrups  are  made  of  steel.  A  breast  strap  is 
used.  All  the  horse  equipments  are  of  fair  leather. 

The  saddle  is  made  in  pieces  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
tree,  may  easily  be  taken  apart  and  put  together.  The  various 
parts  are  numbered  according  to  the  size  of  the  saddle,  and  when 
worn  out  or  damaged  can  be  replaced  by  the  trooper  without 
the  aid  of  tools. 

All  cavalrymen  excepting  the  cuirassiers  are  furnished  with 
leather  surcingles  for  use  over  the  schabracks  for  ceremonies. 

The  saddle  blanket  is  of  wool,  usually  white  or  gray,  and 
folded  from  nine  to  twelve  times.  Regimental  commanders 
are  allowed  some  latitude  in  making  minor  changes  in  accoutre- 
ments. 

Picket  lines  are  prepared  from  lariats.  Hatchets,  spades  and 
materials  for  demolition  of  bridges,  etc.,  are  distributed  in  each 
squadron. 

The  weight  of  arms  and  saddle  equipments  is  about  sixty 
pounds,  and  the  clothing  and  other  articles  of  the  trooper's  kit 
will  average  more  than  forty  pounds.  The  total  weight  carried 
by  the  horse,  exclusive  of  rider,  will,  therefore,  seldom  be  less 
than  one  hundred  pounds. 

The  method  of  attaching  the  carbine  indicates  that  it  is  secured 
in  place  before  the  trooper  mounts.  The  wallets  are  attached  to 
the  pommel  by  four  straps,  and  the  overcoat  and  grain  bag  are 
carried  in  rear  of  the  cantle.  The  illustrations  figures  76,  77 
and  78  are  made  from  photographs  of  a  trooper  of  the  First 
Dragoons  of  the  Guard  and  show  the  method  of  adjusting  the 
saddle  and  pack.  The  carbine  is  carried  in  a  leather  boot  attached 
to  the  right  side  of  the  saddle.  The  boot  is  also  attached  to  the 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT  179 

right  girth  strap  to  steady  the  carbine,  which  hangs  perpen- 
dicularly. When  mounted  the  carbine  is  habitually  carried  in 
the  boot,  but  the  trooper  is  furnished  with  a  sling  to  carry  it 
across  the  back  for  dismounted  duty.  The  saber  is  attached  to 
the  left  side  of  the  saddle  and  balances  the  carbine  to  some  extent. 
For  dismounted  duty  the  trooper  attaches  the  saber  to  his  belt. 
The  cartridge  box  seen  behind  the  back  is  hung  from  the  shoulder 
belt,  and  contains  thirty  cartridges.  The  left  wallet  has  a  small 
pocket  in  the  front,  in  which  are  carried  thirty  cartridges.  The 
horseshoes  are  strapped  on  the  outside  of  the  wallet.  The  white 
end  of  the  grain  sack  and  the  overcoat  are  seen  just  above  the 
leather  case  containing  the  cooking  vessel,  which  is  hung  from 
the  cantle  on  the  left  side.  The  lariat  (no  picket  pin)  is  coiled 
grummet  fashion  and  hung  from  the  right  side.  The  halter 
strap  is  rolled  and  tied  at  the  left  side  of  the  headstall.  The 
field  kit  or  pack  is  not  carried  during  ceremonies,  drills  or  gar- 
rison duties. 

It  is  presumed  some  arrangement  exists  for  securing  the  lance 
to  the  horse  when  the  trooper  dismounts,  for  it  is  well  recognized 
in  the  American  service  that  the  horse-holders  must  follow  up 
an  advancing  line,  or  take  the  horses  back  to  cover  when  a  de- 
fensive line  is  to  be  held. 

It  is  a  qestion  whether  the  German  equipment  does  not  indicate 
that  they  are  divided  as  to  cavalry  lessons,  and  that  they  have 
attempted  to  satisfy  both  the  admirers  of  the  lance  and  those  who 
recognize  that  fire  action  is  a  necessary  accompaniment  to  success- 
ful raiding  columns  as  well  as  to  perform  the  other  important 
functions  of  cavalry. 

No  blanket,  shelter-tent  or  cover  appears  to  be  included  in 
the  German  cavalryman's  equipment.  This  makes  it  absolutely 


l8o  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

necessary  to  billet  the  men,  which  involves  scattering  them  about 
villages  in  a  way  which  rs  not  conducive  to  cavalry  success,  al- 
though it  may  be  entirely  applicable  to  infantry.  It  would  not 


Figure   78.     Off  side   view,   packed   saddle,   German   dragoon   dismounted. 

be  practicable  in  America  to  campaign  without  baggage  wagons 
unless  some  blankets  or  shelter  tents  are  carried  on  the  horses. 
The  system  of  billeting  may  do  away  with  this  necessity  in 
Europe,  but  it  would  never  work  in  America. * 

*  During  the  Civil  War  several  general  and  many  subordinate  officers 
learned  by  bitter  experience  that  they  were  not   safe  billeted   in  houses, 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT  l8l 

THE   FRENCH    CAVALRY. 

The  French  cavalry  is  composed  of  cuirassiers,  dragoons  and 
light  cavalry.  All  are  armed  with  the  regulation  carbine.  The 
dragoons  carry  the  lance  in  addition  to  the  carbine.  The  saber 


Figure  79.     Saddle  tree,  cuirassiers,  French  cavalry. 

is  common  to  the  three  classes,  but  those  issued  to  the  cuirassiers 
are  heavier  than  those  of  the  dragoons  and  light  cavalry.     The 


even  in  the  midst  of  troops.  A  notable  occurrence  was  the  capture  of 
General  STOUGHTON  while  asleep  in  bed  at  the  house  of  Dr.  GUNNEL,  in 
Fairfax  Court  House,  Va.,  several  miles  within  the  Federal  lines.  This 
was  accomplished  by  MOSBY,  who,  with  his  men,  passed  through  the 
picket  line  in  some  heavy  pine  timber  during  a  dark  and  rainy  night. 
The  guards  on  the  streets  were  approached  under  the  guise  of  patrols, 
and  all  were  captured  without  firing  a  shot.  A  captain  and  a  number  of 
men  were  captured,  and  also  nearly  sixty  animals,  many  of  them  being 
officers'  horses.  A  number  of  individuals  were  captured  in  this  way 
during  the  progress  of  the  war,  among  them  being  the  late  Major-General 
CROOK. 


Figure  80.     Saddle  complete,  cuirassiers,  French  cavalry. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  183 

cuirass  weighs  fourteen  and  one-third  pounds,  a  very  material 
and  useless  addition  to  the  weight  which  the  horse  must  carry. 

At  the  last  weighing  of  the  French  cavalry  the  average  weight 
carried  by  the  horses  was  for  cuirassiers,  282.24  pounds ;  for 
dragoons,  256.88  pounds,  and  for  light  cavalry,  235.93  pounds. 
The  wide  variation  of  nearly  fifty  pounds  between  cuirassiers 
and  light  cavalry  is  accounted  for  to  some  extent  by  the  difference 
in  weight  of  the  trooper  as  well  as  by  the  heavier  equipment. 


Figure  81.     Saddle  tree,  light  cavalry,  French. 

The  French  saddles  are  a  trifle  heavier  than  those  of  several 
other  prominent  European  armies,  and  are  considerably  heavier 
than  those  used  by  the  American  cavalry.  The  saddle  consists 
of  a  combination  of  wood  and  iron,  the  bars  and  cantle  arch 
being  of  wood  and  the  pommel  arch  of  iron.  The  girths,  stirrup 
and  breast  straps  are  attached  by  means  of  D's  on  the  bars.  The 
tree  is  completely  covered  with  a  leather  seat.  Leather  skirts  are 
attached  to  the  bars  of  the  French  saddle.  Breast  straps  and 
cruppers  are  used.  The  stirrups  of  steel  are  without  hoods.  The 


184  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

saddle  blankets  issued  weigh  practically  the  same  as  the  American 
cavalry  blankets. 


Figure  82.     Saddle  complete,  light  cavalry,  French. 

The  saddle-tree  and  the  saddle  complete  of  the  cuirassiers 
are  shown  in  figures  79  and  80,  and  those  of  the  light  cavalry  in 
figures  81  and  82.  The  padded  panels  are  in  accordance  with 
European  ideas  of  saddlery. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  185 

The  carbine  is  carried  on  the  trooper's  back   (figures  83,  84, 
and  85). 


Figure  83.     French  Dragoon  in  full  dress  which  differs  from  field  dress 
in  the  addition  of  a  red  plume  for  the  helmet. 

The  saddle-bags  (A,  figure  82)  are  carried  across  the  pommel 
and  the  small  horseshoe  bags  (B,  figure  82)  are  attached  in  rear 
of  the  cantle.  The  cloak  is  tightly  rolled  and  strapped  to  the  cantle, 
and  the  forage  sack  (C,  figure  82)  is  strapped  in  front  of  the 


1 86 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


saddle-bags.     The  saber  is  carried  in  the  leather  loop  (D,  figure 
82)  attached  to  the  left  side  of  the  cantle. 

Independently  of  the  rations  on  regimental  trains,  each  trooper 


Figure  84.     Sapper,  French  Chasseur,  equipped  with  axe. 

is  required  to  take  at  departure  two  days'  rations  of  bread,  two 
days'  of  miscellaneous  provisions,  one  day's  ration  of  preserved 
meat,  one  ration  of  condensed  soup  and  one  and  one-half  days' 
rations  of  grain  for  his  horse. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


i87 


No  blanket  or  shelter  tent  is  carried  by  the  trooper,  as  reliance 
is  had  on  billeting,  and  when  that  is  impracticable,  resort  is  had 
to  simple  bivouac.  The  forage  wagons  of  each  squadron  carry 
complete  shoeing  outfits  and  spare  shoes. 


I 


Figure  85.     Near  side,  French  Chasseur,  mounted. 

Articles  of  special  equipment  for  use  in  destroying  bridges, 
felling  timber,  demolitions,  etc.,  are  distributed  to  selected  men 
who  have  been  specially  instructed  in  the  use  of  modern  explo- 
sives and  their  application  to  the  destructive  purposes  of  war. 


1 88 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


The  analytical  investigation  of  the  horse  has  been  a  favorite 
study  in  France  for  three  hundred  years,  and  it  has  resulted  in 
much  technical  knowledge  which  has  been  brought  into  use  in 
establishing  the  remount  system  for  the  nation  in  arms.  Every- 
thing tends  to  encourage  breeders,  who  are  allowed  to  deal 
directly  with  the  purchasing  officers  and  are,  thereby,  assured 
the  highest  possible  reward  for  raising  acceptable  horses.  There 
is  much  food  for  reflection  by  American  officers  in  the  regula- 
tions of  the  general  remount  service  of  France,  as  well  as  the 
methods  of  horsemanship  and  horsemastership  taught  at  the 
French  Cavalry  School  at  Saumur. 


THE  RUSSIAN    CAVALRY. 

The  Russian  cavalry  is  composed  of  cuirassier,  uhlan,  hussar 
and  dragoon  regiments,  the  greater  portion  having  the  last- 
named  designation. 


Figure  86.     Russian  cavalry  saddle  tree. 

The  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  are  armed   with 
the  saber  and  rifle  with  bayonet.     Trumpeters  carry  the  saber 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


i89 


and  revolver.  The  rifle  is  carried  slung  over  the  back,  muzzle 
in  rear  of  the  left  shoulder,  and  the  saber  is  also  attached  to  the 
person  of  the  trooper. 


Figure  87.     Russian  cavalry  saddle  complete. 

The  Russian  cavalry  saddle  is  made  with  somewhat  larger 
side  bars  than  the  usual  military  saddle,  but  the  arches  are  very 
light.  The  arches  forming  the  pommel  and  cantle  are  riveted  to 


190 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


Figure  88.     Russian  dragoon,  near  side,  equipped  for  field  service. 

the  side  bars,  and  are  connected  together  by  a  strap  which  sup- 
ports the  cushion  or  seat.  Figure  86  shows  the  tree ;  the  staples 
seen  near  the  ends  of  the  side  bars  are  for  attaching  the  straps 
to  secure  the  front  and  rear  packs. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


IQI 


Figure  89.     Russian  dragoon,  off  side. 


Felt  pads  are  placed  under  the  side  bars,  being  held  in  place 
by  a  pocket  over  the  front  and  a  strap  around  the  rear  end  of  the 
bars  behind  the  cantle  arch. 


192 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


Figure  87  shows  the  saddle  packed  for  service.     No.  I  is  the 
cushion  or  seat;  2,  the  skirt;  3,  the  stirrup  strap;  4,  4,  the  saddle 


Figure  90.     Russian  hussar,  equipped  for  field  service. 

girths;  5,  the  saddle  cloth;  6,  the  overcoat;  7,  the  picket-pin; 
8,  the  saddle-bags;  9,  the  kettle;  10,  the  horse  blanket;  n,  u,  the 
pack  straps;  13,  the  breast  strap. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


193 


The   saddle-bags,   carried   in   rear   of   the   cantle,   contain   the 
rations  and  personal  articles  not  strapped  to  the  saddle. 

The  total  weight  of  the  Russian  cavalry  equipment,  including 


Figure  91.     Russian  Cossack  of  the  Imperial  Guards. 


the  rifle  or  carbine  and  thirty-six  rounds  of  ammunition,  is  about 
120  pounds,  and  the  estimated   weight  of  the   soldier  is   167.4 
pounds.     This  makes  the  total  weight  carried  by  the  horse  about 
288  pounds. 
13 


IQ4  HORSES,   SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 

Figure  88 — copied  from  a  photograph  taken  at  the  Officers' 
Cavalry  School — shows  a  Russian  dragoon  equipped  for  field 
service,  and  figure  89  shows  the  same  trooper  on  the  reverse  side. 

Figure  90  represents  a  Russian  hussar  equipped  for  campaign, 
and  figure  91,  illustrates  a  Cossack  of  the  Imperial  Guards,  a  type 
of  irregular  cavalry  peculiar  to  the  Russian  army.  The  Cossacks 
are  habitually  equipped  with  the  lance. 

THE   AUSTRIAN    CAVALRY. 

The  Austrian  cavalry,  like  the  German,  is  divided  into 
dragoons,  hussars  and  lancers,  but  all  are  similarly  armed  and 
equipped,  the  only  difference  being  in  designation  and  uniform. 
The  troopers  are  armed  with  the  saber  and  a  magazine  carbine, 
which  they  are  taught  to  use  on  foot. 

The  Austrian  cavalrymen  enjoy  the  reputation  of  being  ex- 
cellent riders  and  are  mounted  upon  a  good  class  of  saddle  horses. 
Men  and  horses  are  both  comparatively  light ;  there  is  no  distinc- 
tion as  to  light  and  heavy  cavalry. 

The  interests  of  the  arm  are  cared  for  by  the  Inspector-Gen- 
eral of  Cavalry  and  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  which  is  specially 
charged  with  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  personnel  and  material 
of  the  cavalry  branch. 

The  saddle-tree  and  cover  are  shown  in  figure  92. 

The  saddle-tree  is  composed  of  two  wooden  side  bars,  to  which 
are  riveted  a  wooden  pommel  and  cantle,  the  cantle  being  some- 
what longer  than  the  pommel. 

The  side  bars  contain  holes  for  the  stirrup  straps,  and  also 
small  holes  through  which  the  ties  pass  for  fastening  the  girth 
to  the  saddle-tree.  The  bars  are  encased  in  felt  covers  with 
leather  corners.  The  pommel  and  cantle  are  connected  by  a  piece 


MODERN    CAVALRY   AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT  195 


Figure  92.     Austrian   Saddle  and  cover. 


of  leather,  upon  which  the  leather  seat  rests;  the  seat  and  skirts 
form  one  piece,  which  is  fastened  to  the  pommel  and  cantle  by 
thongs.  The  flaps  have  holes  through  which  the  stirrup  straps 


Figure  93.    Austrian  trooper  equipped  for  field  service. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  197 

pass.  The  girth  is  of  two  pieces  of  leather  fastened  to  the  side 
bars  and  with  a  buckle  on  the  longer  piece.  The  surcingle,  also 
of  leather,  is  fastened  over  the  saddle.  Heavy  steel  stirrups  with 
a  broad  tread  are  used. 

The  saddle  is  comparatively  light,  and  the  seat  is  high  enough 
above  the  horse's  back  to  admit  of  a  good  circulation  of  air. 
Careful  attention  is  paid  to  fitting  saddles,  and  fifty  with  ad- 
justable side  bars  are  allowed  each  regiment  for  special  cases. 
The  simplicity,  dimensions  and  general  shape  of  the  saddle-tree 
commend  it  for  military  purposes. 

A  black  leather  breast  strap  is  used,  but  no  crupper. 

The  saddle  blanket  is  about  five  feet  square,  folded  in  six 
folds.  The  saddle  is  prevented  from  slipping  by  the  felt  pads  on 
the  side  bars. 

When  the  trooper  is  equipped  for  field  service  (figure  93), 
reserve  rations  for  three  days,  the  clothing  and  personal  kit  are 
carried  in  the  wallets. 

A  horseshoe  pouch  of  leather  is  fastened  to  the  left  side  of  the 
saddle  near  the  cantle.  A  wooden  picket-pin,  with  an  iron  point 
and  ring,  is  carried. 

A  forage  sack  is  fastened  at  the  middle  of  the  cantle. 

A  telescopic  canvas  water  bucket,  the  cooking  utensils  and 
eating  tin  are  also  carried  on  the  saddle. 

The  carbine  is  carried  slung  on  the  trooper's  back,  butt  down, 
and  muzzle  opposite  the  left  shoulder. 

The  average  load  carried  by  the  horse,  including  trooper, 
equipments,  rations,  forage,  and  a  share  of  the  tools,  weighs  more 
than  297  pounds. 


198 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


Figure   94.     Set   of   fours,   Austrian   cavalry,   showing   method   of   linking 
horses  when  righting  on  foot. 


A  set  of  fours  of  hussars  is  shown  in  figure  94,  which  illus- 
trates the  method  of  attaching  the  horses  together  when  dis- 
mounted action  occurs. 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT 


199 


THE    JAPANESE    CAVALRY. 

An  examination  of  the  history  of  any  great  war,  with  special 
reference  to  the  causes  of  failure,  not  infrequently  develops  that 
lack  of  full  success  may  be  fairly  attributed  to  a  deficiency  of  cav- 


Figure  95.     Japanese  Trooper  showing  method  of  carrying  rifle  and  saber. 

airy  or  an  improper  employment  of  that  arm,  the  character  of  the 
country  within  and  adjacent  to  the  theater  of  operations  and  the 
national  traits  of  the  combatants  being  duly  considered. 

In  the  recent  struggle  between  Japan  and  Russia,  the  theater  of 
war  included  much  country  favorable  to  the  operations  of  cavalry 


200 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


In  view  of  the  reputation  previously  sustained  by  the  Russian 
Cossacks,  and  their  failure  to  make  good  in  Manchuria,  the  small 
Japanese  cavalry  force  employed  in  the  war  becomes  peculiarly 
interesting  to  all  military  students. 


Figure  96.    Japanese  Trooper  showing  method  of  carrying  rifle  and  saber. 

The  Japanese  army  entered  Manchuria  with  a  very  small 
mounted  force,  not  equal  in  strength  to  an  American  cavalry 
division.  The  men  were  not  good  horsemen  and  the  ponies,  while 
hardy  and  capable  of  enduring  much  exposure  and  fatigue,  were 


MODERN    CAVALRY   AND   ITS    EQUIPMENT 


201 


in  no  sense  a  proper  mount  for  the  work  to  be  expected  of  cavalry 
in  a  field  of  action  so  peculiarly  favorable  to  an  enterprising  force. 
From  the  nature  of  their  country  the  Japanese  have  had  com- 
paratively little  use  for  horses  in  the  past,  and  at  the  commence- 


Figure  97.    Japanese  saddle  and  horse  equipments. 

ment  of  the  war  there  was  no  reserve  of  men,  accustomed  to  the 
use  of  horses,  to  draw  upon. 

The  Japanese  cavalry  organization  and  methods  of  instruction 
are  based  on  the  German  system.  The  cavalry  comprises  only  one 
class  which,  by  reason  of  the  size  of  the  horses,  the  average  weight 


2O2 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


of  which  is  752  pounds,  would  ordinarily  be  called  light  cavalry. 
This  term  is  used  in  Europe  to  designate  a  body  of  horsemen 
mounted  upon  small  active  horses  of  a  class  entirely  different 
from  the  heavy  necked  Mongolian  and  other  Chinese  ponies  which 


Figure  98.     Near  side  view,  saddle  (packed),  Japanese  Trooper. 

constituted  so  large  a  proportion  of  those  used  by  the  Japanese. 

The  trooper  is  armed  with  a  rifle,  which  is  carried  on  his  back, 
and  a  saber  which  is  also  carried  on  the  person  of  the  trooper. 
(Figures  95  and  96.) 

The  saddle  used  is  of  a  pattern  differing  but  little  from  that  of 
Germany.  (Figures  97  and  98.) 


MODERN    CAVALRY    AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT 


203 


The  total  weight  of  the  average  trooper,  with  his  arms,  saddle 
and  equipments,  is  255  pounds,  or  about  one-third  the  average 
weight  of  the  horse. 

The  Japanese  discovered  very  early  in  the  campaign  that  they 


Figure  99.     Near  side  Japanese  Trooper  Mounted. 

were  seriously  hampered  through  their  deficiency  of  cavalry  and 
undertook  to  import  horses  and  build  up  the  army  during  the 
progress  of  the  war.  A  medium  sized  Australian  horse  averaging 
from  fourteen  to  fifteen  hands  in  height,  both  active  and  hardy, 
was  selected  as  a  type  and  nearly  fifteen  thousand  were  delivered 


204 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


before  the  close  of  the  war.  In  the  reduction  and  reorganization 
consequent  upon  the  close  of  hostilities  the  Australian  horses  and 
the  best  of  the  ponies  were  retained  for  the  cavalry  and  field 
artillery. 


Figure  100.     Off  side  Japanese  Trooper  Mounted. 

A  remount  depot  and  officers'  school  combined  is  intended  to 
afford  the  means  of  disseminating  a  uniform  system  of  equitation 
and  horse  training  for  the  cavalry.  The  new  type  of  cavalryman, 
toward  which  the  Japanese  are  bending  their  efforts,  is  shown  in 
Figures  99  and  100. 

To  obtain  a  uniform  supply  of  such  horses  it  will  be  necessary 
to  undertake  horse  breeding  in  Japan  on  a  much  larger  scale  than 


MODERN    CAVALRY   AND    ITS    EQUIPMENT  2O5 

has  heretofore  been  known  in  that  country  or  to  absolutely  control 
the  sea  route  for  future  importations. 

It  is  observed  that  the  British  and  German  Cavalry  carry  the 
carbine  or  rifle  on  the  horse,  while  the  practice  in  other  foreign 
armies  is  to  have  the  gun  carried  on  the  trooper's  back. 
Theoretically,  the  slinging  of  the  carbine  over  the  shoulder  and 
strapping  it  snugly  to  the  back  is  the  best  way  for  the  gun,  as 
well  as  for  the  horse.  In  this  position  the  carbine  is  not  liable  to 
injury,  and  is  always  with  the  trooper  when  he  dismounts,  no 
time  being  lost  in  detaching  it  from  the  saddle.  It  is  very  much 
harder  on  the  trooper,  the  fatigue  being  doubly  severe  whenever 
the  trot  is  taken.  The  horse  has  to  carry  the  weight  whether  it 
is  on  the  man  or  the  saddle.  Everything  being  considered, 
Americans  prefer  not  to  put  the  weight  on  the  trooper,  for  the 
fatigue  occasioned  by  carrying  a  gun  across  the  back  all  day  is 
apt  to  produce  lounging  in  the  saddle,  which,  in  the  end,  is  more 
disastrous  to  the  horse  than  if  the  gun  is  hung  in  some  manner 
from  the  saddle. 

Sabers  are  carried  on  the  person  in  some  armies  and  attached 
to  the  saddle  in  others.  A  saber  suitable  for  a  mounted  man  is 
an  encumbrance  to  him  on  foot,  and  should  always  be  attached  to 
the  saddle.  In  this  position  it  makes  but  little  noise  compared 
to  that  produced  when  hanging  from  the  trooper's  waist. 

There  is  not  much  difference  between  the  equipments  and  kits 
in  the  various  armies  as  to  weight,  but  there  are  many  varying 
opinions  and  customs  regarding  the  distribution  and  adjustment 
of  the  packs.  Many  little  things  which  appear  trifling  may  have 
great  bearing  upon  the  comfort  and  endurance  of  both  men  and 
horses,  and  these  in  turn  exercise  great  influence  on  the  success 
of  campaigns. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
ENDURANCE  OF  HORSES. 

Influence  of  the  Weight  of  the  Pack. — Husbanding  Strength  of  Horses. — 
Abuse  of  Horses. — Marching  Gaits. — Endurance  Varies  With  Treat- 
ment, Size  and  Shape. — Causes  of  Losses  of  Horses  in  War. — Cavalry 
Raids. — Losses  of  Horses  in  Various  Campaigns. — The  Cavalry 
Bureau,  and  What  It  Accomplished. — Frontier  and  Foreign  Service. 

The  cavalry  of  all  nations  is  weighted  down  with  heavy  saddles, 
arms  and  equipments.  The  enormous  loss  of  horses,  resulting 
from  service  under  such  conditions,  makes  it  imperative  to  prevent 
unnecessary  waste.  When  not  in  the  actual  presence  of  the 
enemy,  where  troopers  are  liable  to  be  detached  at  a  moment's 
notice,  it  would  increase  efficiency  and  be  vastly  more  economical 
to  attach  light  wagons  to  every  cavalry  command  to  relieve  the 
saddle  animals  of  all  extra  weight.  This  would  save  the  horses 
until  the  theater  of  operations  is  entered,  at  which  moment  every 
strap  should  be  in  place,  for  the  "  ears  and  eyes  "  of  the  army 
would  be  untrue  to  its  traditions  if  it  failed  to  be  ready  to  gain 
contact  with  the  enemy,  whom  once  encountered,  should  never  be 
lost  sight  of  until  success  is  achieved. 

For  the  few  brief  charges  upon  the  field  of  battle,  into  which 
the  excitement  of  the  moment  may  carry  the  sick  and  the  lame, 
there  must  be  months  and  years  of  patient  and  laborious  work 
in  reconnaissance,  patrol,  advance  and  rear  guard,  outpost  duty, 
and  route  marches  with  horses  loaded  down  with  heavy  and 
unwieldy  packs.  Few  men  upon  first  entering  the  service  can 
realize  how  accurate  a  balance  is  required  for  the  large  amount 
of  baggage  and  kit  placed  upon  the  horse. 


ENDURANCE    OF    HORSES  2O/ 

Experience  gradually  teaches  the  trooper  that  the  more  he 
packs  on  his  horse  the  greater  will  be  the  chance  of  breaking  him 
down,  but  stringent  orders  are  necessary  with  all  recruits  on 
service  to  compel  them  to  leave  in  camp  or  quarters  all  but  the 
necessary  and  authorized  articles. 

While  the  weight  of  the  pack  does  not  appear,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  to  diminish  the  rate  of  speed  upon  the  march,  it 
necessarily  augments  the  fatigue  of  the  horse,  and  ultimately 
tends  to  reduce  his  length  of  service.  When  it  becomes  im- 
perative to  march  at  a  faster  gait  than  a  walk  for  several  days, 
it  is  customary  to  reduce  the  weight  of  pack  to  its  lowest  limit, 
and  to  secure  that  remaining  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  it 
from  swaying  about. 

On  long  marches,  where  grain  is  hauled  in  wagons  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  being  suddenly  ordered  to  abandon  the  train,  it 
is  advisable  always  to  save  up  the  horses  by  loading  the  bulky 
portions  of  the  pack  in  the  wagons  as  the  grain  is  fed  out. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  the  pack  and  the  legitimate  work  of 
cavalry  which  breaks  down  the  horses  and  renders  them  un- 
serviceable. Many  fat  horses  are  started  on  the  downward  road 
by  being  galloped  about  in  an  excited  manner  by  couriers,  who 
form  exaggerated  ideas  of  the  importance  of  the  messages  they 
bear.  This  applies  especially  when  ordered  to  take  the  .field 
suddenly  after  prolonged  garrison  service. 

All  soldiers  of  experience  know  well  the  value  of  carefully 
husbanding  the  strength  and  wind  of  horses  at  the  start.  Many 
men  have  been  compelled  to  lead  broken-down  horses,  or  pack 
their  saddles  and  equipments  into  camp  on  foot,  because  of  use- 
lessly worrying  fresh  horses  when  getting  ready  for  the  march. 

It  is  folly  to  imagine  that  horses  can  be  put  through  any  pre- 


2O8  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND   BRIDLES 

liminary  training  or  hardening  process  which  will  enable  them 
to  undergo  the  hardships  of  campaigning,  unless  provided  with 
sufficient  food  and  properly  cared  for  on  the  march. 

Many  instances  are  recorded  where  the  horses,  not  of  pickets 
and  vedettes,  but  of  large  bodies  of  cavalry,  were  kept  saddled 
and  bridled  for  days  at  a  time  in  anticipation  of  immediate  service. 
This  practice  cannot  be  regarded  as  otherwise  than  criminal  in 
a  properly  instructed  command. 

A  few  saddles  removed  at  a  time,  the  horses  allowed  to  roll  and 
then  groomed,  the  saddle  blanket  shaken  out  and  refolded,  and 
finally  a  good  brisk  hand  rubbing  of  the  legs,  would  not  be 
dangerous  to  the  command  if  vedettes  were  properly  posted ;  to 
the  tired  horse  it  would  be  just  such  a  boon  as  comes  to  the 
invalid  when  his  bed  is  aired  and  made  over  after  a  serious  illness. 

The  greater  part  of  cavalry  marching  is  done  at  a  walk.  When 
in  the  enemy's  country  it  is  necessary  to  give  time  for  the  advance 
parties  to  send  scouts  out  in  all  directions,  and  allow  the  foraging 
details  to  collect  supplies  and  bring  them  to  the  line  of  march. 
When  traveling  with  convoys  a  faster  gait  than  a  walk  would 
leave  the  trains  unguarded. 

When  circumstances  do  not  prevent  the  present  plan  in  the 
American  service  is  to  alternate  the  march  at  a  walk  with  the 
moderate  trot.  This  brings  the  command  to  the  end  of  the  jour- 
ney in  much  less  time,  and  admits  of  the  heavy  weight  being 
removed  entirely  from  the  horse,  so  that  he  may  rest  and  graze. 
This  method  also  obtains  in  other  services,  and  experiments  made 
in  marching  at  various  gaits  indicate  that  the  combination  of  walk 
and  trot  is  the  best  for  cavalry. 

The  endurance  of  horses  varies,  not  only  with  the  treatment 
accorded  to  them,  but  also  with  regard  to  their  size,  shape  and 


ENDURANCE    OF    HORSES  2OO, 

adaptability  for  service.  An  army  whose  ordinary  losses  do  not 
demand  more  than  12  per  cent  of  remounts  each  year  may  be 
considered  fortunate.  It  has  been  estimated  that  cavalry  horses 
last  about  two  years  longer  in  some  countries  than  in  others 
during  ordinary  peace  conditions.  It  is  very  difficult  to  obtain 
reliable  data  on  such  a  subject,  but  it  is  apparent  to  the  most 
casual  student  that  any  system  which  procures  two  years  longer 
service,  on  an  average,  from  its  animals  than  is  obtained  under 
other  systems  is  worthy  of  investigation.  It  is  not  only  a  question 
of  the  military  estimates  from  an  economical  standpoint,  but  also 
that  a  continuance  in  the  ranks  of  trained  horses  saves  much 
valuable  time  otherwise  consumed  in  training  remounts. 

Exhaustion,  over-exertion,  starvation  and  extreme  heat  are 
responsible  for  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  losses  of  army 
horses.  Direct  manifestation  of  these  conditions  are  usually 
discernible,  but  there  are  many  affections  of  a  serious  nature  not 
so  readily  diagnosed. 

The  loss  of  animals  in  all  wars  is  very  great,  and  occasionally 
the  average  is  much  increased  by  occurrences  of  an  unusual 
nature.  The  situation  at  Chattanooga,  when  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  was  besieged  after  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  may 
be  placed  under  this  category.  There  was  absolutely  no  forage 
for  the  animals ;  they  ate  bark,  wagon  bodies,  one  another's 
manes  and  tails,  and  those  not  used  for  food  by  the  half-starved 
troops  finally  succumbed  to  starvation  at  the  picket  lines. 

In  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  where  every  pound  of  supplies 
had  to  be  brought  by  sea  or  rail  from  Northern  farms,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  understand  how  it  happened  that  many  detachments, 
even  regiments,  were  left  unprovided  for  at  times.  Constant 
exposure  in  rain  and  mud  caused  much  disease ;  at  one  time 
14 


2IO  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

nearly  all  the  cavalry  horses  were  laid  up  with  scratches  and 
grease  heel,  brought  on  by  unsanitary  surroundings. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  war  the  demand  for  horses  to 
mount  the  newly  organized  cavalry  regiments  was  very  great, 
and  as  the  majority  of  people  supposed  that  the  war  would  be 
of  short  duration,  considerable  carelessness  prevailed  in  the 
selection  of  horses.  Thousands  of  animals  utterly  unfit  to  take 
part  in  the  fatigues  and  exposure  of  campaigns  were  hurried  into 
service,  with  the  very  natural  result  that  they  soon  died  or  became 
a  burden  upon  the  government. 

The  records  of  the  volunteer  cavalry  during  the  Civil  War  are 
not  sufficiently  accurate  to  base  any  conclusions  or  comparisons 
as  to  the  endurance  of  trained  animals  in  the  hands  of  regular 
soldiers,  such  as  exist  in  large  numbers  in  European  armies. 
They  do,  however,  give  an  idea  of  just  what  may  be  expected 
whenever  a  large  number  of  volunteers  are  put  into  the  field  upon 
untrained  horses. 

General  MEIGS  commented  upon  this  subject  in  his  report  as 
Quartermaster-General  in  1862  as  follows: 

"  Ignorance  and  carelessness  of  raw  soldiers  waste  our  horses, 
but  it  is  believed  that  the  quality  of  the  animals  supplied  is  quite 
as  good  as  in  any  other  army. 

"  After  every  battle  and  every  considerable  march  great  num- 
bers of  horses  are  turned  into  the  depots  as  disabled,  and  urgent 
requisitions  are  made  upon  the  department  for  remounts,  as 
essential  to  the  efficiency  of  the  troops.  Of  the  disabled  horses 
many  die ;  many  prove  on  inspection  to  be  incapable  of  recovering 
in  such  time  as  to  be  worth  the  expense  of  keeping  them ;  these 
are  sold.  Those  which  by  good  feeding  and  careful  attention  can 
be  recruited  are  kept  in  the  depots,  and  issued  for  use  in  the  army 
when  again  fit  for  the  service. 


ENDURANCE   OF    HORSES  211 

"  The  reports  and  returns  received  from  the  new  and  inex- 
perienced officers,  who,  from  necessity,  have  been  employed  in 
this  department,  are  too  irregular  and  imperfect  to  give,  at  this 
time,  a  perfectly  accurate  statement  of  the  number  of  horses  and 
mules  purchased  and  issued  to  the  army  during  the  fiscal  year. 
The  consumption  of  horses  has  been  very  great." 

When  it  is  considered  that  each  cavalryman  in  the  Confederate 
army  was  compelled  to  supply  himself  with  a  horse,  without  re- 
course to  the  government,  the  number  supplied  to  the  Federal 
army  surpasses  all  belief. 

There  were  purchased  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1864,  188,718  horses;  captured  from  the  enemy  and  reported, 
20,308.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  those  captured  and  not 
reported,  it  is  observed  that  the  army  required  more  than  500 
horses  each  day  for  remounts ;  and  this  is  the  measure  of  destruc- 
tion of  horses  during  the  same  period. 

Notwithstanding  his  opinion,  that  "  as  the  cavalry  has  im- 
proved in  discipline  and  knowledge,  it  is  believed  the  horses  last 
longer,"  the  Quartermaster-General  again  called  attention  to  the 
great  loss  of  horses  in  the  following  language: 

"  During  the  first  eight  months  of  the  year  1864  the  cavalry  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  supplied  with  two  remounts, 
nearly  40,000  horses. 

:<  The  supply  of  fresh  horses  to  the  army  of  General 
SHERIDAN  during  his  late  campaign  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenan- 
doah  has  been  at  the  rate  of  150  per  day." 

Such  data  as  can  be  obtained  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  much 
of  the  loss  of  horses  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  during  the  first 
two  years  of  the  war  was  brought  about  by  mistaken  ideas  as  to 
the  proper  use  of  cavalry.  The  amount  of  picket  duty  performed 
by  mounted  men  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  numbers  or 


212  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

to  the  necessities  of  the  service.  Worn  out  troopers,  lounging 
in  muddy  and  frozen  saddle  kits,  on  half-starved  horses,  charac- 
terized the  outpost  duty  of  the  army  during  the  winter  of  1862 
and  1863.* 

Cavalry  raids  were  inaugurated  by  the  Confederates  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  the  war  into  the  territory  of  the  enemy,  thus 
cutting  lines  of  supply  and  forcing  undesirable  concentrations  of 
troops.  These  raiders  lived  off  the  country,  and  returned  to  their 
lines  laden  with  booty,  and  accompanied  by  a  plentiful  supply  of 
fresh  horses  captured  from  the  enemy. 

As  the  Federal  cavalry  became  trained  to  its  work,  raiding 
columns  were  sent  into  various  parts  of  the  South ;  many  of 
them,  particularly  those  penetrating  to  the  rear  of  LEE'S  army, 
found  the  conditions  very  different  from  those  attending  Con- 
federate raids,  for  there  was  little  or  nothing  left  in  that  region. 
These  raids  tested  the  powers  of  endurance  of  the  horses  to  the 
utmost  limit,  and  were  responsible  for  an  immense  loss  of  animals. 
Raiding,  however,  became  accepted  as  a  thing  of  recognized 
value  in  the  art  of  war,  and  the  full  accomplishment  of  mighty 
ends  was  regarded  as  value  received  for  the  thousands  of  ex- 
hausted and  dead  horses  that  marked  the  routes  of  march. 

Although  the  weight  of  packs  carried  on  these  raids  was  always 
fixed  as  low  as  possible  under  the  extraordinary  circumstances 
surrounding  them,  the  horses  were  weighted  beyond  their 
capacity,  ridden  beyond  their  powers  of  endurance,  fed  mostly 

*  The  sixth  regiment  of  regular  cavalry  was  encamped  near  Falmouth, 
Va.,  for  four  months  performing  outpost  duty,  and  when  ordered  to 
march  on  the  resumption  of  the  campaign,  April  13,  1863,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  leave  360  men  in  the  dismounted  camp,  notwithstanding  strenuous 
exertions  had  been  made  to  keep  the  regiment  mounted.  It  is  probable 
that  like  proportions  obtained  in  other  regiments  in  that  army. 


ENDURANCE   OF    HORSES  213 

on  green  corn  fodder  or  "  roughness,"  and  used  up  generally  in 
the  accomplishment  of  the  great  ends  for  which  the  columns  were 
set  in  motion.* 

The  loss  of  horses  alarmed  the  government  for  fear  it  would 
be  impracticable  to  keep  up  a  numerous  and  well-equip- 
ped cavalry,  and  the  organization  of  new  cavalry  regiments  was 
discouraged.  It  required  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Cavalry 
Bureau  to  remount  the  regiments  already  enlisted  in  the  early 
days  of  the  war. 

It  requires  careful  training  and  much  experience  to  develop 
officers  capable  of  handling,  economically,  brigades,  or  even 
regiments  of  cavalry.  A  corps  of  volunteer  infantry  can  be 
organized  and  put  in  the  field  fit  for  any  duty  before  a  single, 
strictly  volunteer,  regiment  of  cavalry  can  be  made  ready  to  per- 
form mounted  duty  without  great  waste  of  horses  and  property. 
The  following  letter  written  at  a  critical  period  of  our  national 
history,  tells  its  own  tale : 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C,  February  13,  1865. 
Lieutenant-General  Grant,  City  Point: 

GENERAL: — As  the  time  is  approaching  for  organizing  the  cavalry  for 
the  spring  campaign,  I  forward  the  following  items  in  regard  to  its 
conditions  and  wants,  collected  by  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  to  January  i,  1865. 

Cavalrymen  present  for  duty  105,434 

Cavalrymen  present  and  absent  160,237 

Cavalry  horses  serviceable  77,847 

Cavalry  horses,  unserviceable  9,659 

Cavalry  horses  purchased  during  the  year 154,400 

*  Although  WILSON'S  expedition  to.Selma,  Ala.,  with  a  body  of  13,000 
horsemen,  was  through  much  of  the  South  which  was  depended  upon  to 
furnish  supplies  to  the  Confederate  armies,  each  trooper  was  ordered  to 
carry,  in  addition  to  his  ordinary  kit,  five  days'  rations,  twenty-four 
pounds  of  grain,  100  rounds  of  ammunition,  and  two  extra  horseshoes. 
This  enabled  them  to  pass  across  a  strip  of  country  which  had  been 
devastated  by  both  armies.  The  raid  was  entirely  successful,  and  culmi- 
nated in  the  capture  of  the  ex-President  of  the  Confederacy. 


214  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

The  number  expended  has  been  much  greater  than  this,  as  the  cavalry 
force  has  been  less  than  the  previous  year,  and  moreover,  a  considerable 
number  of  team  and  captured  horses  have  been  issued  to  the  cavalry, 
and  also  recuperated  animals.  The  expenditure  of  cavalry  horses  during 
the  year  has  probably  been  less  than  180,000.  The  waste  or  loss  of 
cavalry  equipments  during  the  year  is  estimated  as  follows :  Carbines 
expended,  93,394;  pistols  expended,  71,000;  sabers  expended,  90,000;  horse 
equipments,  150,000.  Expense  of  cavalry  in  horses,  pay,  forage,  rations, 
clothing,  ordnance,  equipments,  and  transportation,  $125,000,000,  is  cer- 
tainly a  large  sum  for  keeping  up  our  cavalry  force  for  one  year.  In 
regard  to  particular  commands,  there  are  in  the  Armies  of  the  Potomac 
and  the  James  about  10,000  mounted  men,  and  in  the  Middle  Division, 
under  General  SHERIDAN,  about  12,000  which  can  be  kept  efficient  by 
issue  from  here,  except  in  case  of  extraordinary  casualties.  General 
SHERMAN  has  with  him  in  the  field  about  6500  men,  which,  since  he  left 
Atlanta,  he  has  kept  mounted  by  captures  from  the  enemy.  In  the 
Department  of  the  Ohio  (now  Kentucky)  there  were  issued  to  General 
BURBRIDGE  for  his  Saltville  expedition  6000  horses.  On  his  return  4000 
were  reported  lost  or  unserviceable.  When  HOOD  commenced  his  march 
against  Nashville  General  THOMAS'  immediate  command  had  only  about 
5000  effective  cavalry,  but  between  the  ist  of  October  and  3ist  of  Decem- 
ber all  horses  purchased  in  the  West  were  sent  to  his  chief  of  cavalry, 
the  issue  amounting  to  23,000,  and  including  those  sent  to  General 
BURBRIDGE  during  the  same  period,  29,000,  in  three  months  to  General 
THOMAS'  entire  command.  As  Generals  WILSON  and  BURBRIDGE  have 
made  requisition  since  that  period  for  14,000  additional  horses,  it  is 
presumed  that  about  the  same  number  were  lost  or  disabled  during  that 
period  of  three  months. 


In  regard  to  the  enormous  surplus  of  cavalry  in  the  Western  and 
Southwestern  armies,  as  compared  with  infantry,  I  would  remark  that 
it  has  resulted  in  a  great  measure  from  the  repeated  requisitions  of 
Generals  ROSECRANS,  BANKS  and  others  for  increase  of  mounted  forces, 
and  their  mounting  infantry  as  cavalry.  They  were  repeatedly  informed 
that  so  large  a  cavalry  force  could  not  be  supported,  and  experience  has 
placed  this  question  beyond  a  doubt.  Moreover,  no  general  can  com- 
mand and  efficiently  employ,  in  our  broken  and  wooded  country,  a  body 
of  cavalry  of  more  than  10,000  or  12,000  men. 


ENDURANCE   OF    HORSES  215 

The  mounted  infantry  and  militia  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  have 
destroyed  a  vast  number  of  horses  without  rendering  any  effective  ser- 
vice in  the  field.  The  same  remark  is  partly  applicable  to  the  mounted 
militia  in  Missouri. 


General  WILSON  wants  10,000  additional  remounts  for  the  spring  cam- 
paign. It  is  certain  that  so  large  a  number  of  remounts  cannot  be 
supplied  to  that  army,  even  if  we  make  no  further  issue  to  other  cavalry 
troops  supplied  from  the  West. 


Moreover,  I  learn  from  the  Quartermaster-General  that  he  is  now 
some  $180,000,000  in  debt,  and  that  unless  more  money  is  soon  raised  it 
will  be  very  difficult  to  purchase  supplies  for  the  army. 


It  is  also  proper  to  determine  when  the  purchase  of  remounts  shall 
be  resumed  for  SHERIDAN  and  the  Armies  of  the  Potomac  and  the  James. 
Considering  that  the  Quartermaster's  Department  cannot  now  supply 
forage  to  the  animals  we  have  on  hand,  I  would  not  advise  purchases  to 
be  commenced  before  the  middle  of  March,  and  I  doubt  whether  naviga- 
tion will  be  sufficiently  opened  by  that  time  to  enable  us  to  bring  forward 
horses  and  supplies.  The  railroads  of  the  North  cannot  do  this. 
Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

H.  W.  HALLECK, 
Major-General  and  Chief  of  Staff. 

In  this  connection  it  appears  proper  to  cite  a  few  instances 
from  the  experience  of  other  nations,  in  order  to  show  that  the 
loss  of  horses  during  the  Civil  War  was  not  the  result  of  wanton 
waste,  but  that  much  of  it  should  have  been  expected  in  accord- 
ance with  the  teachings  of  history. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  loss  of  horses  arises  from  a  variety  of 
causes,  those  killed  in  battle  being  but  a  small  percentage  of  the 
whole.  Forced  marches,  periods  of  great  privation,  and 
epidemics,  occur  at  intervals  to  raise  the  ordinary  average,  and 


2l6  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

these  causes  must  always  be  counted  upon  as  exercising  a  marked 
effect  in  every  campaign,  no  matter  where  the  theater  of  opera- 
tions may  be. 

THE   RUSSIAN    CAMPAIGN.       l8l2. 

During  the  Russian  campaign  the  French  crossed  the  Niemen 
in  June,  1812,  with  cavalry,  artillery  and  train  horses  to  the  ex- 
tent of  187,121 ;  about  60,000  of  these  pertained  to  the  cavalry. 
Up  to  this  time  it  had  been  very  hot;  an  unprecedented  rainfall 
commenced  and  in  a  few  days  the  roads  became  almost  im- 
passable, and  there  was  little  or  no  food  for  the  horses.  Ten 
thousand  horses  were  left  dead  between  the  Niemen  and  Wilna. 
The  only  food  to  be  had  for  the  large  number  of  animals  with 
the  army  consisted  of  young,  growing  crops  of  wheat,  rye  and 
barley.  Such  food  is  calculated  to  produce  weakness,  and  in- 
testinal troubles  of  a  grave  nature,  and  this  was  without  doubt 
the  cause  of  most  of  the  loss. 

MURAT  states  that  half  the  cavalry  perished  around  Moscow 
in  their  search  for  supplies.  It  was  not  the  horrors  of  the  icy 
retreat  which  used  up  the  animals,  for  NAPOLEON  caused  BER- 
THIER  to  write  to  VICTOR  on  November  6,  that  the  cavalry  was 
unhorsed;  in  all  92,000  horses  had  succumbed  before  the  first 
fall  of  snow. 

On  December  13,  the  remnant  of  the  invading  army  recrossed 
the  Niemen  with  1600  cavalry.  In  six  months  the  horses  had 
all  disappeared,  and  there  is  ample  evidence  that  this  was  not 
the  result  of  cold,  but  of  starvation,  aggravated,  perhaps,  by  cold 
towards  the  end  of  the  campaign. 


ENDURANCE   OF    HCRSES  217 

RETREAT  TO  CORUNNA PENINSULAR  WAR. 

This  retreat  was  carried  out  in  rain,  ice  and  snow,  over 
mountain  roads.  The  food  supply  was  not  abundant,  but  the 
chief  cause  of  loss  was  the  want  of  horseshoes  and  nails.  There 
was  plenty  of  iron,  but  no  time  to  perform  the  work  of  making 
shoes  by  hand. 

After  all  the  perils  and  suffering  of  the  retreat,  those  horses 
which  survived  and  reached  Corunna  were  put  to  death  on  the 
beach  to  prevent  them  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  there 
being  no  room  for  them  on  the  transports.  About  2300  horses 
constituted  the  loss. 

.MASSENA'S  RETREAT  FROM  PORTUGAL. 

MASSENA  retreated  from  Portugal  with  8000  horses.  During 
the  ten  days  occupied  by  the  retreat  the  total  loss  was  1955,  or 
195  each  day,  being  over  twenty-two  per  cent  of  the  whole 
number. 

AFGHAN    CAMPAIGN.      1838-39. 

There  was  not  a  large  number  of  cavalry  horses  employed  in 
the  first  Afghan  War,  but  the  loss  was  nearly  sixty  per  cent. 
The  loss  af  pack  animals  from  starvation  was  very  heavy,  and 
has  caused  the  Bolan  F'ass  to  be  well  remembered  in  the  British 
service.  The  animals  were  worn  out  by  a  long  march  and  bad 
water,  and  being  entirely  dependent  upon  grazing  for  food,  the 
loss  amounted  to  20,000  animals  before  reaching  Candahar,  and 
more  than  30,000  for  the  campaign. 

In  the  second  Afghan  War  (1878)  the  loss  of  pack  animals 
during  a  period  of  six  months  was  9496  out  of  a  total  of  13,840 
on  the  returns. 


2l8  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

CRIMEA.       1855. 

All  sorts  of  excuses  have  been  made  for  the  losses  in  this 
campaign,  but  the  melancholy  fact  remains  that  the  horses  were 
starved  to  death.  During  a  period  of  six  months  the  loss  of 
transport  horses  was  thirty-eight  per  cent.,  and  out  of  5048 
cavalry  and  artillery  horses  there  remained  at  the  opening  of 
spring  2258. 

ITALIAN    CAMPAIGN.       1859. 

During  the  campaign  in  Italy  the  Emperor,  NAPOLEON  III, 
ordered  a  cavalry  commission  to  investigate  the  circumstances 
which  had  reduced  the  cavalry  to  a  comparative  state  of  in- 
efficiency. It  transpired  that  on  May  20,  1859,  the  French 
cavalry  had  9008  effective  horses,  which  number  was  sub- 
sequently increased  by  the  arrival  of  a  brigade;  so  that  on  the 
24th  of  June,  the  date  of  the  battle  of  Solferino,  the  total  number 
of  horses  borne  on  the  returns  was  10,206.  On  the  day  of  the 
battle  it  was  found  that  only  about  3500  horses  were  in  the  ranks 
fit  for  duty.  The  remainder  had  been  disabled  by  less  than  a 
month's  marching,  and  an  immense  proportion  of  these  had  been 
rendered  unserviceable  by  the  saddle  and  other  portions  of  the 
equipment. 

BOHEMIA.       1866. 

During  the  brief  campaign  of  a  few  weeks  in  Bohemia  in  1866 
the  Prussian  cavalry  suffered  a  loss  of  4226  horses,  that  being 
about  seventeen  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  in  the  campaign 

FRANCO-GERMAN   WAR.       1870. 

The  official  returns  of  the  German  army  show  only  the  loss 
of  horses  in  action;  that  is,  killed,  wounded  and  missing.  No 


ENDURANCE    OF    HORSES  2IQ 

returns  are  given  of  those  which  died  from  diseases,  but  as  the 
army  received  a  supply  of  38,000  horses  during  the  campaign, 
besides  the  animals  captured  or  impressed  by  detachments  to  re- 
place broken-down  horses,  and  not  reported,  the  loss  from  disease 
may  be  assumed  at  not  far  from  30,000.  The  number  killed, 
wounded,  etc.,  was  reported  at  14,595. 

EGYPTIAN    CAMPAIGN.       1885. 

The  total  strength  of  horses  for  all  branches  of  the  service 
landed  in  Egypt  was  5000,  of  which  one-eighth  died  or  were 
destroyed.  The  loss  in  the  cavalry  was  one-fifth.  The  number 
of  sore  backs  treated  during  this  campaign  was  very  large,  being 
more  than  500. 

THE    BOER    WAR.       1899-1902. 

Complete  and  accurate  data  concerning  the  losses  of  animals 
in  the  Transvaal  is  not  available.  Between  October,  1899,  and 
May  31,  1901,  143,130  horses  and  79,514  mules  were  purchased 
in  the  United  States,  Argentina,  Canada,  Australia,  Hungary 
and  the  British  Islands.  The  purchase  of  horses  and  mules  went 
on  at  an  active  rate  in  the  United  States,  and  a  shipload  of  one 
thousand  or  more  was  embarked  each  week  at  New  Orleans.  It 
is  believed  well  within  the  mark  to  say  that  250,000  horses  and 
mules  were  shipped  to  South  Africa,  and  that  the  losses  from 
horse  diseases,  peculiar  to  that  country,  together  with  the  usual 
campaign  losses,  amounted  to  not  less  than  100,000  animals. 

Besides  suffering  from  the  tsetse  fly  and  the  South  African 
climate,  the  British  cavalry  was  seriously  weakened  by  being 
pushed  to  the  front  before  the  horses  had  recovered  from 
the  long  sea  voyage.  There  was  no  hay  and  little  or  no  grazing 
much  of  the  time.  The  grain  fed  without  hay  over-stimulated 


22O  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

the  horses.  The  American  cavalry  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
was  nearly  ruined  in  this  way  during  the  winter  of  1864,  while 
in  the  cantonment  at  Brandy  Station,  the  ration  of  grain  having 
been  increased  to  make  up  the  deficiency  of  hay. 

In  these  brief  references  to  the  experience  of  several  nations, 
enough  has  been  shown  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  heavy  losses 
of  horses  should  be  expected  in  service,  and  are  absolutely  in- 
separable from  active  and  successful  campaigning.  This  is  said 
advisedly,  for  it  would  be  courting  disaster  to  teach  any  such 
doctrine  as  that  the  saving  of  horses  from  injury  and  death  is 
of  such  importance  as  to  permit  it  for  a  moment  to  hazard  the 
full  success  of  any  campaign. 

It  took  two  years  of  a  great  war  in  America  to  bring  about 
the  establishment  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau ;  the  result  of  this  action 
was  most  beneficial  to  the  armies  in  the  field.  The  Cavalry 
Bureau  not  only  enforced  a  better  system  of  inspection,  but  by 
the  establishment  of  several  large  and  well  equipped  depots, 
under  competent  officers,  it  was  enabled  to  receive  a  great  num- 
ber of  broken-down  horses  for  recuperation,  about  fifty  per  cent 
of  which  were  ultimately  returned  to  duty.  Many  of  the  others 
were  sufficiently  recuperated  to  be  sold  to  farmers,  thus  repairing 
some  of  the  waste  of  war  and,  at  the  same  time,  releasing  fresh 
horses  for  army  use.  Thousands  of  horses  were  returned  to 
the  ranks  after  a  few  months  rest  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  abandoned,  or  if  retained  in  the  regiments  would  have 
seriously  impaired  the  efficiency  of  the  cavalry. 

For  many  years  before  and  after  the  Civil  War  the  cavalry 
traveled  incessantly  to  and  fro  over  the  mountains,  plains  and 
deserts  of  the  great  Western  frontier,  with  varying  degrees  of 
fortune.  Much  of  this  occurred  prior  to  the  settlement  of  the 


ENDURANCE    OF    HORSES  221 

country,  and  hence  many  of  the  long  and  arduous  marches  were 
accomplished  with  difficulty,  often  accompanied  with  actual  suf- 
fering and  disaster. 

As  early  as  the  Mexican  War,  a  cavalry  column  marched  from 
Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  to  San  Diego,  Cal.,  a  distance  of  more 
than  2000  miles,  passing  through  a  hostile  country,  and  fighting 
several  severe  actions,  before  arriving  at  its  destination. 

During  the  Sioux  Indian  campaign  of  1876  a  brigade  under 
General  CROOK  lost  about  600  horses,  a  great  many  being  killed 
for  food,  upon  which  the  entire  command  subsisted  for  some 
days.  During  the  same  campaign  the  Seventh  Cavalry,  operating 
with  another  command,  lost  more  than  300  horses  killed  in  action 
and  from  other  causes. 

During  the  autumn  of  1879,  while  in  action  against  the  Ute 
Indians,  all  the  animals  of  Major  THORNBURG'S  command  were 
killed,  as  well  as  those  of  a  troop  which  made  a  forced  march  of 
eighty  miles  to  aid  beleaguered  comrades. 

During  the  war  with  Spain,  the  majority  of  the  regular  cavalry 
regiments  participated  in  the  Santiago  campaign,  dismounted, 
there  being  no  transports  available  for  the  horses  except  those  of 
one  squadron  of  four  troops.  When  the  surrender  of  Porto  Rico 
and  Cuba  took  place,  five  cavalry  regiments  filled  to  war  strength 
were  transported  with  their  horses  to  various  ports  in  those 
islands,  without  any  unusual  loss. 

The  long  sea  voyage  to  the  Philippine  Islands  caused  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  mounted  contingent  of  the  first  expedition,  to  one 
squadron,  which  was  later  reinforced  by  the  remaining  squadrons 
of  the  regiment.  When  it  became  apparent  that  without  cavalry 
to  cooperate  with  the  other  branches  the  war  in  the  Philippines 
would  be  indefinitely  prolonged,  several  regiments  were  ordered 


222  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

there  direct  and  these  were  later  reinforced  by  those  which  had 
been  assigned  to  duty  with  the  Chinese  Relief  Expedition. 

A  considerable  number  of  animals  have  been  killed  in  the  Philip- 
pines, in  the  effort  to  eradicate  glanders  and  surra,  but  from  the 
date  of  the  landing  of  American  troops  in  those  islands,  up  to  the 
present  time,  including  all  the  active 'field  service  incident  to  the 
insurrection,  the  percentage  of  loss  of  animals  has  not  been  ab- 
normal, all  things  considered. 

Instances  of  endurance,  forced  marches,  and  losses  by  field  and 
flood  might  be  indefinitely  multiplied  from  records,  but  the  few 
cited  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  varied  character  of  cavalry 
service,  and  the  severity  of  its  demands  upon  both  men  and 
horses. 


CHAPTER   X. 

AGE  OF  HORSES. 

Period  of  Longevity  or  Extreme  Age. — "  Rising  "  and  "  Past "  a  Certain 
Age. — Age  as  Indicated  by  the  Teeth. — Temporary  Teeth. — Permanent 
Teeth. — The  Marks  or  Cups. — Angle  Which  Incisors  Make  in  Coming 
Together. — The  Tusks. — Rasping  Off  the  Corners  of  Incisors. — 
Bishoping. 


Figure  101.     Belle  Mosby. 

The  probability  of  a  horse's  reaching  an  advanced  age  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  race  and  breeding  as  upon  his  care  and 
surroundings.  Bad  treatment,  food  insufficient  in  quantity  and 
poor  in  quality,  alike  tend  to  shorten  the  duration  of  the  horse's 
service.  In  this  wav  one  horse  mav  be  old  and  worn  out  at 


224  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

twelve  or  fourteen,  while  another  may  continue  to  render  satis- 
factory service  at  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years  of  age. 

In  1894  there  was  a  horse,  about  twenty-six  years  old,  still  in 
service,  in  the  regiment  to  which  the  author  belonged,  that,  in 
1875,  participated  in  a  march  from  Kansas  to  Arizona,  a  distance 
of  nearly  fifteen  hundred  miles.  There  were  several  horses  used 
in  the  Fort  Leaven  worth  squadron  during  the  year  1894  which 
were  more  than  twenty  years  of  age. 

There  are  numerous  instances  to  substantiate  the  statement 
that  horses  live  to  be  thirty-five  or  forty  years  of  age.  It  will 
be  sufficient  to  cite  the  case  of  "  Belle  Mosby,"  whose  photograph 
is  shown  in  figure  101  and  that  of  the  celebrated  army  mule, 
"  Mexique,"  which  died  about  1886.* 

*  The  mare  "  Belle  Mosby "  was  stolen  by  a  negro  boy  from  a  Con- 
federate camp  near  Newmarket  Creek,  Va.,  in  March,  1865,  and  was 
brought  across  the  creek  to  the  camp  of  the  Eighteenth  Pennsylvania 
by  means  of  a  single  twelve-inch  plank  walk  thrown  across  the  abutments 
of  the  recently  burned  bridge.  She  was  purchased  from  the  negro  by 
Lieutenant  YOUNG  in  exchange  for  an  overcoat.  She  soon  after  became 
the  property  of  JOSEPH  R.  PHILLIPS,  Company  "  F,"  Eighteenth  Pennsyl- 
vania Cavalry,  her  present  owner,  who  used  her  in  service  for  several 
months,  and  then  sent  her  home  to  his  farm.  She  has  never  weighed 
more  than  950  pounds.  Her  teeth  showed  her  to  be  five  years  old  when 
brought  into  camp,  which  makes  her  age  thirty-five  when  the  photograph 
was  taken  in  1894. 

A  few  years  ago  a  petition  was  sent  to  the  War  Department  by  the 
officers  stationed  at  Mount  Vernon  Barracks,  Ala.,  stating  that  a  white 
mule  which  had  been  in  service  at  that  post  for  forty-five  years  was  about 
to  be  sold  as  unserviceable,  and  requesting  authority  to  purchase  him, 
to  be  kept  at  their  own  expense,  because  of  his  long  and  faithful  service. 
The  petition  was  endorsed  by  General  SHERMAN  as  follows : 

"  I  have  seen  that  mule,  and  whether  true  or  false,  the  soldiers  believe 
it  was  left  at  Big  Springs,  where  the  Mount  Vernon  Barracks  now  are, 
at  the  time  General  JACKSON'S  army  camped  there — about  1819  or  1820. 
Tradition  says  it  was  once  sorrel,  but  now  it  is  white  from  age.  The 


AGE   OF    HORSES  225 

It  is  usually  claimed  that  mares  live  longer  than  horses,  and 
small  horses  longer  than  large  ones,  but  it  is  difficult  to  prove  such 
statements  because  all  animals  do  not  receive  the  same  treatment. 
Some  animals  lead  a  quiet  existence  with  good  hygienic  surround- 
ings, and  attain  great  age,  whereas,  had  they  been  used  in  a  city 
on  stone  pavements,  or  subjected  to  hard  campaigning  with  its 
consequent  exposure  and  semi-starvation,  they  would  probably 
have  fallen  victims  before  attaining  even  moderate  age. 

It  is  very  generally  accepted  as  a  fact  that  horses  which  mature 
slowly  live  longer  than  those  which  mature  rapidly,  provided,  of 
course,  they  receive  like  treatment  and  are  not  put  to  hard  service 
until  fully  grown. 

The  difference  in  general  appearance  between  young  and  old 
horses  is  very  marked.  It  requires  but  little  familiarity  with 
horses  to  detect  the  extremes  of  age  and  the  contrary  condition. 
After  maturity,  however,  more  reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  the 
indications  afforded  by  the  teeth,  than  upon  outward  signs. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  incisor  teeth  or  "  nippers  "  may  be 
examined  by  simply  inserting  the  fingers  in  the  side  of  the  horse's 
mouth,  and  pressing  the  lips  in  front  apart  with  the  thumbs.  The 

Quartermaster's  Department  will  be  chargeable  with  ingratitude  if  that 
mule  is  sold,  or  the  maintenance  of  it  thrown  on  the  charitable  officers 
of  the  post.  I  advise  it  to  be  kept  in  the  department,  fed  and  maintained 
until  death.  I  think  the  mule  was  at  Fort  Morgan,  Mobile  Point,  when 
I  was  there  in  1842." 

The  Secretary  of  War  thereupon  made  the  following  order:  "Let  this 
mule  be  kept  and  well  cared  for  as  long  as  he  lives." 

Secretary  LINCOLN'S  order  did  not  arrive  until  after  the  sale,  but 
"  Mexique "  was  bought  in  and  kept  by  the  officers  until  he  died,  about 
two  years  later.  There  was  no  documentary  evidence,  but  the  history 
of  this  animal  was  traced  far  enough  to  make  him  quite  forty  years  of 
age,  while  less  reliable  information  made  him  much  older. 

15 


226 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 


examination  should  always  be  made  as  gently  as  possible.  If 
resistance  is  encountered  the  left  hand  should  be  placed  upon  the 
horse's  nose  quietly,  while  the  right  is  introduced  into  the  mouth 


Figure  102.     Method  of  examining  the  mouth  when  a  horse  resists. 

to  get  hold  of  the  tongue,  which  is  gently  drawn  out  on  the  left 
side.  If  necessary,  the  lower  lip  may  be  held  with  the  left  hand 
(figure  102).  If  the  horse  still  resists,  a  fore  foot  may  be  held  up, 
and  in  rare  cases,  a  twitch  applied. 


AGE   OF    HORSES 

Before  examining  the  teeth  in  detail,  the  lips  should  be  parted, 
and  the  angle  at  which  the  upper  and  lower  incisors  come  to- 
gether observed.  This  angle  is  obtuse  in  young,  and  acute  in  old 
horses. 

A  horse  is  said  to  be  coming  or  rising  a  certain  age  when  his 
mouth  is  at  the  point  of  presenting  the  characters  of  the  age  to 
which  reference  is  made;  he  has  the  age  when  all  the  characters 
exist;  he  is  past,  when  the  characters  begin  to  disappear;  thus 
rising  four ;  four ;  a  four  year  old  past. 

Age  as  Indicated  by  the  Teeth. — Structural  alterations  take 
place  in  the  teeth  every  year  up  to  the  sixth;  hence  there  can 
rarely  be  any  question  as  to  the  real  age  of  a  horse  up  to  that 
time,  as  indicated  by  the  teeth. 

After  the  horse  has  obtained  his  full  set  of  teeth  the  age  can  be 
approximately  determined  by  the  effect  of  wear  in  altering  their 
shape,  by  the  receding  of  the  gums,  and  by  other  signs. 

Many  circumstances,  however,  often  contribute  to  modify  the 
effect  of  wear  on  the  teeth,  and  also  to  increase  or  decrease  the 
action  of  time  in  other  respects ;  hence  a  correct  estimate  of  age 
can  only  be  formed  by  those  who  have  given  to  the  subject  con- 
siderable study. 

The  young  foal  usually  has  two,  and  sometimes  three,  tem- 
porary molars  in  each  jaw.  When  about  twelve  months  old 
another  molar,  a  permanent  tooth  appears,  and  before  completion 
of  the  second  year  a  fifth  molar,  also  a  permanent  tooth,  shows 
itself. 

At  about  two-and-a-half  years  of  age  the  two  anterior  tem- 
porary molars  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth,  and  at  between 
three  and  four  the  remaining  or  third  temporary  molar  is  re- 
placed. At  about  the  same  time  the  last  or  sixth  permanent 


228  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

molar  begins  to  appear.  Thus  when  the  mouth  is  completed 
there  are  twelve  permanent  molars  in  each  jaw,  or  twenty- four 
in  all. 

These  structural  changes  afford  a  good  index  of  the  age  of  the 
horse  up  to  the  period  when  they  are  completed,  namely,  four 
years.  These  molars,  however,  are  seldom  referred  to,  because 
their  position  at  the  back  of  the  mouth  renders  their  examination 
inconvenient,  and  often  very  difficult.  Nevertheless,  it  is  well 
to  be  acquainted  with  the  changes  in  the  molars,  in  case  there 
should  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  true  age  as  indicated  by  the  in- 
cisors, up  to  and  including  four  years. 

A  supplementary  molar,  known  as  "  wolf's  tooth,"  sometimes 
appears  in  either  jaw.  Such  teeth  seldom  cause  any  inconveni- 
ence. If  they  should  do  so,  they  can  easily  be  removed  by  the 
pincers,  as  they  are  only  of  a  rudimentary  character. 

The  incisors  are  six  in  number  in  each  jaw  when  the  mouth  is 
complete,  and  in  the  immediate  rear  of  these,  on  each  side,  but 
at  a  variable  distance  from  them,  appears  a  pointed  tooth,  called 
tusk.  These  tusks  begin  to  appear  at  about  four  years,  but  are 
not  fully  developed  until  the  last  permanent  incisor  is  more  or  less 
up.  Tusks  are  rarely  found  in  mares. 

Temporary  incisors,  called  milk  teeth,  are  easily  distinguished 
from  permanent  incisors,  being  smaller,  whiter,  and  having  more 
distinct  necks.  They  are  smooth  externally,  and  grooved  inside. 
Their  fangs  are  small,  and  have  but  little  attachment  to  the  gums. 
The  jaws  are  plump,  fleshy,  and  round,  and  the  teeth  are  arranged 
in  something  like  a  semi-circle. 

Permanent  teeth  on  the  other  hand  are  larger,  broader,  wider 
in  their  necks,  grooved  externally,  and  smooth  internally,  and 
more  discolored  than  milk  teeth.  The  discoloration  is  due  to  the 


230  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

lodgment  of  the  juices  and  other  matters  connected  with  the 
food  in  the  grooves.  The  plumpness  and  circularity  of  the  part 
of  the  jaw  containing  the  incisors,  is  less  than  in  the  younger 


Figure  104.     Four  years. 

animal,  and  it  gradually  decreases,  until  in  old  age  the  teeth  are 
arranged  in  nearly  a  straight  line. 

Temporary  or  milk  teeth  (incisors)  are  in  the  gums  in  a  rudi- 
mentary state  when  the  foal  is  born,  and  they  appear  from  time  to 
time  during  the  first  year,  at  the  end  of  which  period  the  yearling 


AGE    OF    HORSES 


231 


mouth  is  complete  in  all  six  incisors.  The  teeth  are  very  close 
together,  and  show  no  signs  of  wear.  The  corner  teeth  are  mere 
shells  (i,  2,  3,  figure  103). 

At  two  years  of  age  the  inner  wall  of  the  corner  teeth  has 
grown  up  level  with  the  outer  wall.  The  center  teeth  show  con- 
siderable signs  of  wear,  and  all  the  teeth  appear  somewhat  smaller 
than  they  did  in  the  yearling.  They  also  appear  somewhat  wider 
apart  at  their  necks  on  account  of  the  gradual  growth  of  the 
jaw  in  width. 

A  few  months  before  three  years  old  the  horse  sheds  the  two 
center  milk  teeth,  which  are  replaced  by  permanent  incisors. 
Thus  at  three  years  the  jaw  contains  two  center  permanent  and 
two  milk  teeth  on  each  side  (4,  figure  103). 

A  few  months  before  four,  the  next  two  milk  teeth  are  shed 
and  replaced  by  permanent  teeth,  the  jaw  now  containing  four 
permanent  and  two  milk  teeth  (5,  figure  103,  and  figure  104). 

The  tusks  appear  in  that  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  on  each  side, 
between  the  incisors  and  molars,  at  about  four,  and  continue  to 
grow  until  the  horse  is  five  years  old  or  past.  The  new  tusk  is 
quite  sharp  at  the  point  when  it  first  appears,  and  at  five  there 
is  a  slight  bend  inward,  forming  a  hook  at  the  top.  This  grad- 
ually wears  off,  and  each  succeeding  year  the  tusk  becomes 
rounder  and  more  blunt,  and  its  upper  portion  wears  off. 

Although  the  opposing  tusks  do  not  meet,  they  undergo 
changes  from  the  effect  of  mastication,  and  thus  become  addi- 
tional aids  in  determining  age.  In  general  terms,  the  young  horse 
may  be  known  by  the  sharp-pointed  tusk,  and  the  old  horse  by 
the  flat-top  tusk,  which  in  the  latter  case  is  usually  much 
discolored. 

A  few  months  before  five  the  horse  sheds  the  two  remaining 


232  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND   BRIDLES 

milk  teeth  which  are  replaced  by  permanent  ones.  The  jaw  now 
has  a  full  set  of  six  permanent  incisors,  but  the  corner  teeth  have 
no  inner  walls.  This  absence  of  internal  wall  distinguishes  the 
five  from  the  six-year-old  mouth  (6,  figure  103,  and  figure  105). 


Figure  105.     Five  years. 

A  few  months  before  six  the  inner  wall  of  the  corner  teeth  has 
grown  up  level  with  the  outer  wall,  but  in  some  cases  this  inner 
wall  is  entirely  absent  (7,  figure  103). 

The  mouth  is  now  complete  in  incisors,  and  no  further  struc- 
tural changes  take  place  in  them.  As  a  general  rule  the  upper 


AGE  OF    HORSES 


233 


temporary  teeth  fall  out  a  little  before  those  in  the  lower  jaw. 
Up  to  six  years,  owing  to  structural  changes  there  can  seldom  be 
any  doubt  as  to  the  age  of  the  animal. 

High  feeding  encourages  the  growth  of  the  teeth  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  the  frame,  and.  may  give  a  colt  a  very  forward  ap- 
pearance for  his  age. 

The  Mark. — The  mark  or  cup,  as  more  commonly  called,  is  a 
peculiar  hollow  extending,  when  the  teeth  first  come  up,  about 


Figure  106.     Incisor  tooth  and  section  showing  mark  or  cup. 

half  an  inch  down  in  the  temporary,  and  rather  deeper  down  in 
the  permanent  incisors  (figure  106). 

When  an  incisor  first  comes  up  the  hollow  affords  lodgment 
for  the  debris  of  the  food  and  the  juices  expressed  from  it,  and 
therefore  soon  looks  black.  As  the  tooth  wears  down  the  hollow 
of  course  disappears.  The  dentine  'immediately  below  the  orig- 
inal hollow  being  of  a  somewhat  soft  material,  has  become  stained 
for  some  distance  down ;  thus  there  is  still  a  black  mark.  With 
the  further  wear  of  the  tooth  the  stained  portion  wears  away,  and 


234  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

the  mark  disappears.  The  time  required  for  the  mark  to  wear 
out  varies  according  to  circumstances. 

Between  three  and  five  years  the  marks  or  cups  are  very  plain 
in  all  the  permanent  incisors. 

At  six  the  marks  are  wearing  out  of  the  two  center  teeth,  which 
come  up  at  three  years.  They  are  plain  in  the  two  adjacent,  and 
fresh  in  the  two  corner  teeth  (7,  figure  103). 

At  seven  the  marks  have  disappeared  from  the  center  teeth,, 
are  wearing  out  of  the  two  adjacent,  and  are  distinct  and  plain 
only  in  the  corner  teeth  (8,  figure  103). 

At  eight  the  marks  have  disappeared  from  all  but  the  corner 
teeth  in  which  they  are  becoming  indistinct  (9,  figure  103). 

At  nine  the  marks  are  not  usually  to  be  seen  in  any  of  the 
teeth  (10,  figure  103),  but  for  about  two  years  after  the  mark  has 
disappeared  in  each  tooth  there  may  still  be  seen  a  trace  of  the 
enamel  which  lined  the  bottom  of  the  original  hollow,  and  which 
underlies  it  for  some  depth.  This  of  course  decreases  in  size 
with  the  wear  of  the  teeth. 

At  about  twelve  or  thirteen  the  last  traces  of  the  enamel  have 
usually  disappeared.  The  lower  incisors  all  show  a  rounded 
section,  and  the  dental  star  is  quite  central,  and  very  apparent 
throughout  (n,  figure  103). 

From  the  age  of  fourteen  years  (12,  figure  103),  to  that  of 
seventeen  years  (13,  figure  103),  the  teeth  assume  a  triangular 
form ;  the  center  ones,  or  pincers,  at  fourteen  ;  the  middle  at 
fifteen,  and  the  corners  at  from  sixteen  to  seventeen. 

At  about  eighteen  (14,  figure  103),  the  triangles  formed  by  the 
teeth  lengthen  and  become  laterally  contracted,  so  that  at  twenty 
or  twenty-one  years  (15,  figure  103),  the  teeth  lose  their  triangu- 
lar shape. 


AGE    OF    HORSES  235 

Many  circumstances  may  cause  a  deviation  in  a  slight  degree 
from  these  rules.  The  time  required  for  the  mark  to  wear  out 
will  vary  in  different  horses  according  to  the  hardness  or  softness 
of  the  teeth,  and  the  nature  of  the  food  on  which  the  animal  is 
fed.  Horses  raised  on  the  fresh,  green  pastures  of  well-culti- 
vated farms  retain  their  marks  longer  than  range  horses  of  the 


Figure  107.     Seven  years. 

West  which  graze  upon  the  dry  and  tough,  but  nutritious  native 
grasses  of  the  arid  region. 

Sometimes  there  are  causes  affecting  the  marks  in  particular 
cases  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  most  common  of  these 
are  cribbing  and  "  parrot  mouth."  In  the  first  case  the  teeth  are 
worn  off  rapidly  by  the  constant  gnawing  of  the  animal,  and  in 
the  second  no  wear  of  the  incisors  takes  place  because  the  upper 
teeth  project  over  and  in  front  of  the  lower,  making  it  impossible 


236  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES 

for  the  horse  to  graze  in  pastures.  Sometimes,  but  very  rarely, 
the  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper  jaw. 

The  upper  incisors  are  larger  and  longer  than  the  lower,  and 
the  hollow  is  nearly  twice  as  deep.  The  marks  or  cups  therefore 
remain  visible  a  much  longer  time  than  in  the  lower  teeth. 

At  seven  years  (figure  107)  the  lower  corner  incisors,  being 
narrower  than  the  upper,  commence  to  wear  the  surface  of  the 
upper  incisors  into  a  well-defined  angle,  which  becomes  more 
marked  at  eight,  and  at  nine  appears  as  a  deep  notch.  This 
notch  is  sometimes  absent,  but  rarely  so  unless  the  corners  have 
been  rasped  off  with  intent  to  deceive.  This  notch  is  particu- 
larly useful  to  those  unable  to  decide  upon  the  appearance  of  the 
tables  or  top  surfaces  of  the  lower  incisors. 

At  eight  years  the  dental  star  appears  in  the  form  of  a 
yellowish,  transverse  line,  most  marked  in  the  two  center  incisors, 
and  indistinct  in  the  others.  From  this  time  on  the  dental  star 
must  be  considered,  for  after  the  ninth  year  the  determination  of 
age  by  the  teeth  becomes  very  difficult.  After  the  twelfth  year 
the  age  can  be  only  approximately  determined.  After  the  six- 
teenth year  all  is  confusion,  for  there  are  no  positive  means  of 
ascertaining  the  age  from  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  with  even 
approximate  accuracy.  It  is  safe  then  only  by  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  shape  of  the  teeth,  condition  of  the  gums,  appearance 
of  the  head  and  frame,  to  announce  that  the  animal  is  old  or  very 
old;  to  say  about  sixteen,  eighteen,  twenty,  or  twenty-five,  indi- 
cates better  judgment  than  to  look  at  the  mouth  of  an  old  horse 
and  say  he  is  "  rising  seventeen  "  or  "  nineteen  past." 

The  dental  star,  mentioned  as  long  at  eight,  gradually  changes 
its  appearance,  until  at  fifteen  it  appears  distinct  and  round  in  all 
the  lower  incisors,  and  is  found  near  the  center  of  the  tables  or 
tops  of  the  teeth. 


AGE   OF    HORSES 


237 


When  a  horse  has  passed  twelve,  especially  if  weakened  by  hard 
service  and  poor  food,  his  tongue  begins  to  project  over  the  bars. 

In  general  the  tables  of  a  young  horse's  teeth  are  broad  in  the 
direction  of  the  jaw ;  those  of  an  old  horse  are  round  or  broad  in 
a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  jaw. 

The  teeth  of  a  young  horse  come  together  in  front  at  a  very 


Figure  108.     Nineteen  years. 

obtuse  angle,  or  almost  in  a  line  (figures  104  and  105).  Those  of 
an  old  horse,  on  the  contrary,  come  together  at  such  a  small  angle 
that  sometimes  the  lower  teeth  seem  to  be  in  the  prolongation  of 
the  jaw  (figure  108). 


238 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES 


Figure  109.   .Cross-sections,  three  right  lower  incisors  of  a 
five-year-old  horse. 


AGE   OF   HORSES  239 

The  changes  of  form  in  the  top  surface  of  the  incisors  arise 
from  wear,  but  this  may  be  illustrated  in  another  way.  Figure 
109  represents  a  series  of  cross-sections  cut  from  the  three  right 
lower  incisors  of  a  five-year-old  horse.  It  will  be  seen  upon  ex- 
amination that  at  the  top  the  sections  are  long  in  the  direction  of 
the  jaw,  i  and  2 ;  oval  in  the  next  few  sections,  3,  4,  and  5 ; 
rounded  forms  in  6,  7,  8,  and  9 ;  triangular  or  long  from  front  to 
rear  in  10,  n,  12,  13,  14,  15,  and  16.  The  first  shapes  charac- 
terize the  young,  and  the  last  the  very  old  horse. 


Figure  no.     Bishoped  teeth. 

There  are  several  fraudulent  ways  of  giving  a  horse's  mouth 
a  more  youthful  appearance  than  nature  has  provided  for  his 
years.  These  are  generally  confined  to  rasping  off  the  corners 
of  the  notches  in  the  upper  incisors,  and  burning  new  marks  or 
cups  in  the  lower  incisors — a  process  called  "  bishoping." 

To  detect  such  frauds  it  is  necessary  only  to  remember  that 
the  shape  of  the  teeth  in  young  and  old  horses  is  entirely  dif- 
ferent, and  that  when  the  natural  mark  exists  it  is  surrounded 
by  a  border  of  enamel  which  is  in  relief  above  the  dental  table. 
On  the  contrary,  when  an  artificial  hole  is  made,  not  being  sur- 
rounded with  hard  enamel,  the  edges  are  not  in  relief  (figure  no). 


240  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 

The  fraudulent  operation  is  very  troublesome,  the  chance  of 
detection  is  great,  and  ordinary  horses  are  not  sufficiently  valuable 
to  justify  the  labor  or  the  risk  attendant  upon  the  operation.  The 
ages  of  valuable  horses  are  matters  of  record,  and  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  falsified. 


CHAPTER  XL 
THE  HORSE'S  FOOT. 

Necessity  for  Care  of  Horse's  Foot. — Knowledge  of  Structure. — Foot  as 
Means  of  Support. — Coffin  Bone ;  Tendons ;  Navicular  Bone ;  Elastic 
Portions  of  Foot ;  Wall ;  Sole,  Frog. — Growth  of  Hoof. — Preparing 
Foot  for  Shoe. — Practices  to  be  Avoided. — Important  Points  about 
Shoe. — Best  Kind  for  Cavalry  Horses. — Clips. — Nails. — Putting  on 
Shoe. — Shoeing  to  Remedy  Defects. 

From  the  earliest  ages,  the  horse's  foot  has  been  recognized  as 
the  principal  region  to  which  care  and  attention  should  be  directed, 
for  when  injured  or  diseased — no  matter  how  perfect  the  other 
parts  may  be — the  animal's  services  are  diminished  or  altogether 
lost.  There  have  been  many  ingenious  devices  for  protecting  the 
horse's  hoof  from  the  damaging  effects  of  wear,  but  many  of  them 
have  not  yielded  the  beneficial  results  to  be  expected  from  scientific 
inventions.  Maladies  of  the  feet  and  limbs,  due  to  a  great  extent 
to  faulty  shoeing,  form  a  very  large  percentage  of  cases  met  with 
in  veterinary  practice. 

It  requires  but  little  reflection  to  see  that  with  the  great  weight 
of  rider,  saddle,  arms  and  equipments,  making  a  total  of  about 
one-fourth  that  of  the  average  cavalry  horse  to  be  carried  on  the 
animal's  own  back,  the  preservation  and  protection  of  his  feet  be- 
come of  paramount  importance.  The  rapidity  with  which  a 
valuable  mount  becomes  disabled  when  a  lost  shoe  is  not  promptly 
replaced  is  evidence  of  the  necessity  for  care  which  does  not  need 
to  be  repeated  to  carry  conviction  to  intelligent  officers  and  men. 
Careless  or  improper  shoeing,  or  neglect  during  marches  and 
16 


242  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

cantonments  in  muddy  localities  bring  alike  disastrous  con- 
sequences. 

Many  men  who  profess  to  be  farriers  show  an  amount  of 
stupidity,  verging,  at  times,  on  criminality,  by  cutting  and  mutilat- 
ing the  horse's  hoof  as  if  it  was  not  susceptible  of  injury.  The 
preservation  of  the  wall  or  crust,  the  sole,  the  bars  and  the  frog, 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  natural  state,  should  be  the  guiding 
principle  in  shoeing. 

A  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  parts  of  the 
foot  should  be  acquired  by  those  having  the  management  of  horses 
in  order  that  the  animals  with  whose  care  they  are  charged  may 
not  be  crippled  by  improper  shoeing. 

Within  the  case  composed  of  the  horny  wall  of  the  foot,  the 
sole  and  frog,  there  is  a  delicate  arrangement  of  bones  and  tendons 
which  needs  to  be  understood  to  prevent  injury  in  shoeing.  Figure 
in  shows  the  structure  along  the  plane  passed  vertically  through 
the  center  of  the  foot.  This  section  gives  the  coffin  bone  an  ap- 
pearance of  being  very  pointed  at  the  toe,  which  is  due  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bone  being  concave  at  the  center  of  the  foot. 

The  foot,  as  a  means  of  support  has  for  its  basis  the  small 
pastern  bone  G,  the  navicular  bone  0  and  the  coffin  bone  K.  The 
coffin  bone  is  more  particularly  the  foundation  of  the  foot,  and  the 
nucleus  on  which  the  hoof  is  moulded,  and  which  it  much  re- 
sembles in  shape.  Into  its  highest  point  in  front,  the  large  exten- 
sion tendon  N  of  the  foot  is  inserted,  and  in  the  middle  of  its  lower 
face,  or  sole,  is  implanted  the  powerful  tendon  7,  which  bends  or 
flexes  the  foot.  These  two  tendons  are  the  chief  agents  in  pro- 
gression. An  elastic  substance  surrounds  them  and  a  portion  of  the 
coffin  bone,  and  the  whole  is  enveloped  by  a  membrane  that  at- 
taches the  hoof  in  the  closest  possible  manner  to  its  outer  surface 


THE    HORSE  S   FOOT 


243 


A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
I. 
K. 
L. 
LL. 
M. 
N. 
O. 


Figure  in.     The  horse's  foot. 


The  wall  or  crust. 

The  sole. 

The  frog. 

The  sensitive  sole. 

The  coronary  band. 

The  sensitive  frog. 

The  small  or  lower  pastern  bone. 

The  great  or  upper  pastern  bone. 

The  flexor  tendon. 

The  coffin  bone. 

Sensitive  Laminae. 

Insensitive  Laminae. 

Inferior  sesamoid  ligament. 

The  extensor  tendon. 

The  coffin  bone. 


244  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Into  each  of  the  wings  or  sides  of  the  coffin  bone  (it  is  crescent 
shaped,  the  horns  extending  backward  on  each  side)  is  fixed  a 
large  plate  of  cartilage  that  rises  above  the  hoof,  where  it  may 
be  readily  felt.  This  plate  has  important  relations  with  its  fellow 
on  the  opposite  side,  as  well  as  with  other  elastic  bodies,  so 
disposed  as  to  sustain  weight,  prevent  jar  and  insure  lightness 
and  springiness  in  the  horse's  movements. 

The  navicular  bone  0  is  a  narrow  piece,  placed  transversely 
between  the  wings  of  the  coffin  bone,  behind,  and  is  intended  to 
throw  the  flexing  tendon  further  from  the  center  of  motion  and 
thus  increase  its  power.  The  tendon  plays  over  the  posterior  or 
lower  face  of  the  navicular  bone  and  this,  together  with  the  re- 
lations established  between  it  and  the  pedal  bone  through  their 
connecting  ligaments,  and  the  bend  the  tendon  makes  in  passing 
over  it,  causes  this  part  of  the  foot  to  be  one  particularly  liable  to 
disease.  Navicular  disease  is  incurable,  and  the  pain  induces  the 
horse  suffering  from  it  to  ease  the  parts  by  "  pointing  a  toe."  As 
already  remarked  in  chapter  I,  a  horse  seldom  rests  a  fore  foot 
unless  there  is  some  injury  or  disease  present,  and  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  as  soon  as  it  becomes  a  habit,  it  may  be  safely  attributed 
to  navicular  disease. 

The  elastic  portions  of  the  foot  comprise  the  large  plates  of 
cartilage  already  mentioned  as  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  coffin 
bone;  the  coronary  ring  or  cushion  at  the  top  of  the  hoof  wall 
which  performs  the  function  of  secreting  or  forming  the  horny 
wall  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  human  finger-nail ;  and  last, 
the  triangular  plantar  cushion,  usually  called  the  "  sensitive  frog," 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  horny  frog  which  immediately  covers  it. 

Besides  the  elastic  apparatus  of  the  foot,  more  immediately  in 
connection  with  the  coffin  and  navicular  bones,  there  is  a  living 


THE    HORSE  S    FOOT  245 

membrane  which  envelops  the  parts,  within  the  hoof,  as  a  sock 
does  the  human  foot,  and  endows  it  with  a  high  degree  of  vitality 
and  secretory  power. 

The  wall  of  the  hoof  is  the  oblique  crust  which  covers  the  front 
and  sides  of  the  foot  from  the  coronet  to  the  ground,  and  which 
is  bent  inward  at  the  heels  to  form  the  "  bars*"  which  are  merely 
prolongations  of  its  extremities.  The  outer  surface  of  a  healthy 


Figure  112  shows  the  bottom  of  a  natural  foot.    The  nomenclature,  indi- 
cated by  the  letters,  is  as  follows : 

A.  The  sole.  D.     The  angle  of  bars  and  wall. 

B.  The  bars.  E.     The  wall. 

C.  The  frog. 

hoof  wall  is  generally  smooth  and  shining.  The  dimensions  of 
the  wall  vary,  being  deep  and  thick  in  front  while  diminishing  in 
height  and  becoming  thinner  towards  the  quarters  and  heels. 


246  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

The  horny  sole  is  a  concave  plate  covering  the  lower  face  of  the 
coffin  bone.  The  sole  is  thickest  around  its  outer  border  where 
it  joins  the  hoof  wall,  and  thinnest  in  the  center,  where  it  is  con- 
cave. A  peculiarity  of  the  sole  is  its  tendency  to  break  off  in 
flakes  on  the  ground  face  when  the  fibers  have  attained  a  certain 
length.  The  hoof  wall,  on  the  contrary,  continues  to  grow  down- 
wards and  unless  rasped  off  by  contact  with  the  ground  or  by  the 
implements  of  the  farrier,  will  assume  abnormal  proportions.  The 
horn  of  the  sole  is  less  dense  and  resisting  than  the  hoof  wall,  and 
is  designed  more  to  support  weight  than  to  sustain  wear. 

The  sole  is  more  or  less  concave  from  its  junction  with  the 
wall,  but  in  moderately  soft  ground  the  whole  of  its  surface  aids 
in  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  animal,  and  even  on  moderately 
firm  ground  a  portion  of  the  sole  shares  in  relieving  the  hoof  wall 
from  pressure. 

The  horny  frog  is  an  outer  duplicate  of  the  sensitive  frog,  and 
is  situated  within  the  bars,  towards  the  back  of  the  hoof.  Its  point 
extends  forward  to  the  center  of  the  sole  and  its  base  or  thickest 
part  fills  up  the  space  in  rear  left  between  the  walls.  The  horny 
frog  is  an  elastic  cushion  resembling  the  pads  on  the  feet  of 
animals  having  no  hoofs.  The  frog,  like  the  sole,  exfoliates  at 
certain  stages  of  its  growth.  To  properly  perform  its  function 
the  horny  frog  must  be  left  unmutilated  and  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  ground. 

The  frog,  on  both  soft  and  hard  ground,  is  an  essential  element 
in  the  weight-bearing  surface,  and  has  great  utility  in  obviating 
concussion,  supporting  the  tendons  and,  on  slippery  ground,  in 
preventing  falls.  In  reducing  the  gait  sharply  from  a  gallop,  or 
in  descending  a  steep  hill,  a  horse  instinctively  and  forcibly  plants 
the  posterior  portions  of  the  foot  on  the  ground  to  bring  the  frog 
into  play. 


THE   HORSE  S   FOOT  247 

There  is  a  narrow  strip  of  horn  which  binds  the  sole  and  hoof 
wall  together,  slightly  more  elastic  than  either.  It  is  through  this 
strip  that  small  pieces  of  gravel  sometimes  work  their  way  to 
the  sensitive  parts  of  the  foot  causing  much  pain  and  lameness  and 
not  infrequently  breaking  out  through  the  hoof  wall. 

The  imprint  of  the  front  hoof  should  be  nearly  circular  in  out- 
line. A  good  hoof  should  have  a  smooth,  unbroken  wall,  and  the 
angle  of  slope  at  the  front  should  not  be  less  than  50°.  The  sole 
should  be  slightly  concave  at  the  circumference  and  deeper  at  the 
center.  The  hoof  wall  ought  to  be  thick  at  the  toe,  gradually 
thinning  towards  the  heels,  but  at  the  junction  of  the  bars  a  strong 
mass  of  horn  should  be  found.  The  bars  should  be  free,  from 
fracture,  and  the  frog  moderately  developed,  firm  and  solid,  the 
cleft  being  shallow  rather  than  deep,  and  showing  no  trace  of 
pulpiness  or  discharge. 

The  hind  foot  should  possess  the  same  soundness  of  horn, 
though  it  differs  in  shape  from  the  fore  foot,  being  more  oval  in 
outline  from  the  toe  to  the  heels.  The  sole  is  also  more  concave* 
the  frog  smaller  and  the  heels  not  so  high.  The  horn  is  usually 
less  hard  and  resisting  than  that  of  the  fore  feet.  In  both  fore  and 
hind  feet  the  dark  hoof  is  generally  the  most  sound  and  appears 
more  resisting  and  indestructible. 

In  its  unshod  state,  the  hoof  is  being  continually  worn  away  by 
contact  with  the  ground,  and  is  also  being  constantly  regenerated 
with  new  growth.  The  wall,  with  the  laminae  on  its  inner  face,  is 
formed  from  the  coronary  cushion  at  the  top  of  the  foot ;  the  sole 
from  the  living  membrane  covering  the  lower  face  of  the  coffin 
bone ;  and  the  frog  from  the  plantar  cushion. 

The  growth  of  the  horn  takes  place  by  the  deposition  of  new 
material  from  the  secreting  surface.  This  incessant  reproduction 


248  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

causes  these  fibers  to  be  mechanically  pushed  downwards  towards 
the  ground.  Once  formed,  the  fibers  are  submitted  to  no  other 
change  than  that  of  becoming  denser,  harder  and  less  elastic  as 
they  recede  from  the  inner  and  approach  the  outer  surface. 

The  secreting  membrane  is  endowed  with  equal  activity  in  all 
parts,  and  the  growth  will  be  regular  throughout  the  hoof  unless 
abnormal  conditions  exist.  Abnormal  conditions  may  arise  from 
injury  or  disease  at  the  coronet  or  from  defective  shoeing,  which 
disturbs  the  usual  direction  of  the  leg  and  its  movements  and 
modifies  the  growth  of  the  horn. 

Any  irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  the  weight  of  the  body 
on  the  foot  has  a  prejudicial  effect  on  the  secreting  apparatus  of 
the  organ  and,  as  a  result,  on  the  form  of  the  hoof.  When  the 
weight  is  evenly  imposed  on  the  foot  being  uniformly  compressed 
throughout  its  extent,  it  receives  everywhere  an  equal  quantity 
of  the  horn-producing  material  by  the  regular  flow  of  blood 
through  it. 

In  a  well-formed  leg  and  foot,  the  degrees  of  resistance  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  hoof  are  so  well  apportioned  to  the  amount 
of  wear  to  be  sustained,  that  all  are  equally  reduced  by  contact  with 
the  ground,  and  the  whole  is  maintained  in  a  perfect  condition  as 
regards  growth  and  wear.  The  amount  of  growth  varies  consider- 
ably in  different  animals,  according  to  the  development  of  the 
secreting  apparatus,  and  in  this  the  operations  of  the  farrier  are 
not  without  influence.  The  horn  grows  more  rapidly  in  warm, 
dry  climates  than  in  wet  ones ;  in  healthy,  energetic  animals,  than 
in  those  which  are  soft  and  weakly ;  in  young,  than  in  old  animals. 
Seasons  and  locality  also  have  their  influences  so  that  in  nature* 
soft  horn  is  opposed  to  soft  ground  and  hard  horn  to  hard  ground. 
On  hard,  dry  ground  the  hoof  grows  dense,  tenacious,  somewhat 


THE   HORSE  S   FOOT  249 

small,  with  a  concave  sole  and  a  little  but  firm  frog.  In  marshy 
regions  the  hoof  becomes  large  and  spreading,  the  horn  soft,  the 
sole  flat  and  the  frog  a  spongy  mass,  unfitted  to  sustain  pressure 
from  hard  soil. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  where  horses  are  stabled  and  worked, 
the  hoof  grows  down  from  the  coronet  at  the  rate  of  about  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  per  month,  so  that  the  entire  wall  of  a  medium- 
sized  hoof  is  regenerated  in  a  period  varying  from  nine  to  twelve 
months.  In  the  natural,  unshod  state,  when  the  equilibrium  be- 
tween growth  and  wear  is  destroyed,  and  the  latter  takes  place  in 
a  rapid  and  unusual  manner,  the  animal  is  compelled  to  rest  until 
the  worn  hoof  has  recovered  its  proper  length  and  thickness,  for 
acute  pain  results  when  the  living  parts  are  exposed.  Under 
artificial  conditions,  when  the  horse  is  employed  to  carry  and  draw 
heavy  loads  on  hard  roads  or  pavements,  shoeing  becomes 
necessary.  This  at  once  stops  the  wear  of  the  hoof  wall,  which, 
continuing  to  grow,  soon  becomes  inconveniently  long  unless  the 
shoe  is  removed  and  the  superfluous  growth  removed  by  the  far- 
rier's tools. 

When  a  shoe  has  been  on  the  foot,  particularly  a  fore  foot,  for 
some  time,  the  hoof  wall  presents  the  appearance  of  having  grown 
faster  at  the  toe  than  near  the  heels.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  shoe  is  nailed  fast  at  the  toe  but  not  at  the  heels,  and 
every  time  the  weight  comes  on  the  foot  the  heels  are  pressed 
down  against  the  iron  shoe  and  slowly  worn  away.  This  pressure 
is  so  great  at  times  that  the  hoof  wall  indents  or  channels  out  the 
shoe  towards  the  heels.  This  growth  of  the  toe  gradually  draws 
the  shoe  forward,  making  it  too  short;  so  the  general  growth  of 
the  hoof  makes  the  shoe  too  small  in  circumference. 

In  preparing  the  foot,  the  heels  usually  require  but  little  altera- 


25O  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

tion.  No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  what  angle 
must  be  given  to  the  front  wall  of  the  hoof,  but  the  trained  eye 
of  a  first-class  farrier  should  enable  him  to  see  what  angle  is  in 
conformity  with  the  natural  bearing  and  direction  of  the  leg.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  always  that  the  amount  of  the  hoof  wall 
to  be  removed  is  limited  by  the  sole.  If  the  lower  margin  of  the 
wall  is  quite  level  with  the  unpared  sole,  it  requires  no  further 
rasping.  When  the  circumference  of  the  hoof  has  been  brought 
to  a  size  and  condition  to  receive  the  shoe  the  sharp  edge  should 
be  rasped  off  slightly  to  prevent  the  wall  from  chipping. 

The  sole  requires  no  cutting  or  rasping,  since  all  excess  of 
growth  is  thrown  off  in  flakes  in  a  natural  and  healthy  manner. 
The  process  of  exfoliation  is  not  very  rapid  but  any  interference 
with  it  is  productive  of  injury.  The  horny  sole  protects  the  foot 
from  bruises;  when  it  is  pared  away  the  animal  becomes  more 
tender-footed  and  the  hoof  gradually  loses  its  natural  shape,  the 
sole  becoming  concave  and  drawing  the  walls  of  the  quarters  in- 
ward, producing  contracted  heels.  It  should  be  the  rule  in  all  far- 
riery that  the  sole  must  not  be  interfered  with  under  any  pretence 
whatever,  so  long  as  the  foot  is  in  a  healthy  condition. 

The  same  remarks  which  apply  to  cutting  the  sole  apply  with 
equal  force  to  the  frog.  Rarely  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove 
projecting  and  useless  flakes.  Sometimes  a  small  stone  or  gravel 
may  become  imbedded  and  require  removal  from  the  frog  by 
means  of  a  blunt  instrument.  Veterinarians  are  often  compelled 
to  order  shoes  removed  to  allow  the  frogs  and  soles  of  maltreated 
and  diseased  feet  to  return,  as  far  as  possible*  to  a  natural  condi 
tion. 

The  common  practices  to  be  avoided — and  which  are  strictly 
prohibited  in  military  farriery — are  paring  the  sole  with  the 


THE    HORSES    FOOT  25! 

knife  until  it  gives  to  the  thumb;  paring  the  frog;  opening  up  the 
heels,  which  consists  in  making  a  deep  cut  into  the  angle  of  the 
wall  at  the  heel  where  it  becomes  bent  inwards  to  form  the  bar ; 
and,  finally,  rasping  off  the  rim  of  the  wall  to  make  it  fit  a  shoe  too 
small  for  the  particular  foot. 

In  considering  the  shoe,  there  are  several  important  points 
which  deserve  attention.  The  metal  attached  to  the  ground  sur- 
face of  the  hoof  is  at  the  end  of  a  long  lever  and  its  weight  must 
be  lifted  at  every  step;  in  a  day's  journey  this  becomes  of  con- 
siderable moment.  If  the  shoe  weighs  only  a  pound  and  the  horse's 
foot  is  raised  from  thirty  to  sixty  times  a  minute,  according  to 
gait,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  four  feet  will  raise  an 
enormous  weight  during  each  day's  march.  The  shoe  should, 
therefore,  be  as  light  as  is  consistent  with  the  work  to  be  done. 

A  light,  thin  shoe  is  preferable  to  a  heavy,  thick  one,  because 
its  thinness  allows  the  sole,  frog  and  bars  closer  proximity  to  the 
ground.  But  these  desirable  qualities  have  limitations  fixed  by 
the  character  of  work  demanded.  A  saddle  horse  for  pleasure 
riding  may  wear  a  very  thin  shoe;  the  cavalry  horse  must  have 
one  with  enough  iron  or  steel  to  stand  at  least  thirty  days'  wear 
on  rough  roads;  the  large  draught  horse  must  have  a  shoe  suf- 
ficiently heavy  to  admit  of  attaching  heel  and  toe  calks  to  enable 
him  to  fully  exert  his  powerful  efforts  in  moving  heavy  loads, 
particularly  in  backing.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  use  ice  nails 
or  calks  on  cavalry  horses  and  hence  the  regulation  shoe  must 
have  metal  enough  to  admit  of  this. 

The  upper  or  hoof-bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  should  not  be 
bevelled,  and  need  not  be  very  wide  if  the  sole  has  been  left  un- 
pared.  Bevelling  the  upper  surface  furnishes  a  lodgment  for 
gravel  and  chips  of  stone,  and  as  the  bevelled  part  furnishes  no 


252 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


support,  it  only  gives  additional  weight  to  no  purpose.  The  shoes 
now  issued  for  cavalry  horses  have  a  very  slight  bevel  on  the  up- 
per surface  (figure  113). 

The  ground  face  of  the  shoe  should  be  parallel  to  the  upper  face 


Figure  113.  U.  S.  Cavalry  horse  shoes,  fore  and  hind,  fitted.  Upper 
illustration  represents  top  and  bottom  surfaces  of  fore  shoe,  and  lower 
those  of  the  hind  shoe. 

in  order  that  the  foot  and  leg  may  maintain  a  natural  position.  If 
the  quarters  are  thicker  than  the  toe,  the  heels  are  unduly  raised, 
and  if  the  toe  of  the  shoe  is  thicker  than  at  the  heel,  an  undue 
strain  is  put  upon  the  tendons  in  rear. 


THE    HORSE  S   FOOT  253 

In  the  natural  foot  the  ground  surface  is  concave,  and  applying 
this  to  the  consideration  of  the  shape  of  the  shoe,  it  is  found  that 
if  any  metal  is  to  be  bevelled  from  the  shoe  it  should  be  from  the 
lower  instead  of  the  upper  face,  which  comes  in  contact  with  the 
hoof. 

Clips,  when  properly  placed,  are  of  service  in  retaining  the 
shoe  and  permitting  the  number  of  nails  to  be  reduced.  As  a  rule, 
clips  are  not  necessary  on  shoes  for  cavalry  horses,  but  in  some 
cases  toe  clips  are  useful. 

The  shoe  should  be  attached  by  nails  to  those  parts  of  the 
wall  where  the  horn  is  strongest  and  toughest,  and  the  smallest 
number  which  will  answer  the  purpose  should  be  used.  In  the 
fore  foot  the  horn  becomes  thin  towards  the  quarters  and  the 
nails  having  less  support  than  nearer  the  toe,  there  is  greater 
danger  of  injuring  the  living  organs  within  the  horny  wall.  In 
the  hind  foot,  the  wall  is  generally  stronger  towards  the  quarters 
and  heels.  In  the  fore  foot  the  nails  may  be  driven  a  little  nearer 
the  heel  on  the  outside  than  the  inside  quarter.  In  the  hind  foot 
they  may  be  driven  around  the  toe  and  entirely  back  to  the  heels, 
if  necessary. 

Nail  holes  are  usually  roughly  stamped  in  the  shoe  in  greater 
numbers  than  required,  but  only  the  number  to  be  used  in  any 
case  need  be  punched  out.  Heavy  shoes  of  course  require  a  con- 
siderable number  of  nails  for  a  large  foot,  but  in  cavalry  service, 
five  nails,  two  inside  and  three  out,  will  be  found  ample  for  nearly 
all  horses.  If  the  shoe  is  well  fitted  and  the  nails  not  bunched  m 
one  part,  the  shoe  will  usually  remain  in  position  until  worn  out. 
The  smallest  sized  nails  which  can  be  made  to  answer  in  each 
case  should  be  used. 

With  the  limited  forge  facilities  available  in  the  field,  the  army 


254  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

must,  necessarily,  be  supplied  with  machine-made  shoes.  Some 
of  the  shoes  require  fitting  before  they  can  be  used,  but  some 
others  are  issued  ready  to  be  put  on.  Ordinarily  it  is  preferable 
to  fit  shoes  at  the  forge  for  each  individual  horse,  for  issue  to 
troopers  to  be  carried  in  the  saddle-bags  as  spare  shoes,  and  have 
an  extra  supply  forged  and  with  nail  holes  punched  out  for  general 
use  when  opportunity  is  afforded  to  reshoe  the  animals  all  around. 

Presuming  that  the  horse  has  a  natural  and  well-shaped  foot, 
the  first  step  in  shoeing  is  to  shorter  and  level  the  hoof  wall.  The 
shortening  should  be  accomplished  by  removing  the  surplus 
growth  of  wall  with  the  cutting  pincers  and  then  leveling  the  lower 
margin  of  the  wall  with  the  rasp,  which  should  be  applied  in  an 
oblique  manner,  across  the'  ends  of  the  fibers.  It  should  be  re- 
membered in  leveling  the  sides  of  the  hoof  wall  that  the  difference 
of  a  fraction  of  an  inch  between  them  will  cause  considerable 
oscillation  of  the  weight  thrown  on  the  leg,  especially  at  the 
fetlock. 

When  the  surplus  horn  has  been  removed  and  the  foot  levelled 
to  receive  the  shoe,  one  should  be  selected  which  follows  the  out- 
lines of  the  hoof  wall.  If  not  already  so,  the  shoe  should  be  so 
moulded  as  to  be  an  exact  reproduction  in  outline  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  hoof. 

The  shoe  should  be  wide  enough  at  the  toe,  quarters  and  heels 
to  support  the  entire  thickness  of  the  hoof  wall,  but  not  so  wide 
as  to  endanger  the  opposite  legs  by  striking  them,  nor  so  long  at 
the  heels  as  to  make  it  possible  for  them  to  be  torn  off  by  the 
hind  feet  treading  upon  the  fore. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  a  shoe  too  small  in  circum- 
ference for  the  foot  be  put  on,  for  this  involves  rasping  away  the 
projecting  hoof  wall  and  taking  away  some  of  the  natural  support 


THE    HORSE  S   FOOT  255 

to  the  leg.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  wall  be  rasped 
away  after  the  shoe  is  put  on.  All  farriers  are  inclined  to  do  this 
to  make  a  neat  looking  job,  but  the  practice  is  forbidden  so  far  as 
public  animals  are  concerned. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  enter  into  the  ancient  controversy  con- 
cerning the  virtues  of  hot  and  cold  fitting.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
it  is  a  quicker  and  surer  way  of  securing  an  accurate  fitting  of  the 
upper  surface  of  the  shoe  to  the  foot  if  it  be  done  at  the  forge 
while  the  shoe  is  hot.  Judgment  must  be  used  in  this  as  in  every- 
thing else,  to  the  end  that  injury  be  not  incurred  by  holding  the 
hot  shoe  long  in  contact  with  the  foot ;  it  should  be  barely  touched 
to  the  foot  to  determine  if  any  further  fitting  is  necessary.  When 
hot  fitting  is  used,  the  farrier  is  more  apt  to  fit  the  shoe  to  the 
foot,  instead  of  the  foot  to  the  shoe,  for  it  is  then  easy  to  mould 
the  hot  shoe  to  the  proper  shape. 

In  putting  on  the  shoe  every  nail  should  be  driven  in  sound 
horn.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  utilize  old  nail  holes.  A  low, 
thick  hold  of  the  wall  is  better  than  a  high,  thin  one,  and,  if 
possible,  no  more  horn  should  be  included  in  the  grasp  of  the  nail 
than  is  likely  to  be  removed  at  the  following  shoeing.  By  this 
means  the  hoof  wall  is  maintained  solid  and  sound.  Skillful 
driving  of  the  nails  is  essential  to  good  shoeing,  for  the  nails  are 
made  of  a  fine  quality  of  soft  iron  and  frequently  bend  so  as  not 
to  emerge  at  the  proper  point  in  the  wall. 

The  nails  at  the  front  part  or  toe  of  the  shoe  should  be  ham- 
mered home  firmly  and  then  the  quarter  or  heel  nails  driven. 
When  all  the  nails  have  been  driven  in  solidly,  the  points  should 
be  cut  or  twisted  off  and  the  nails  tightly  drawn  up. 

The  fragment  of  the  nail  projecting  through  the  horn  should 
be  shortened  to  proper  length  with  the  rasp  so  as  to  leave  just 


256  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

enough  to  turn  over.  The  small  barb  of  horn  raised  in  drawing 
up  the  nail  should  be  removed  with  the  rasp,  without  making  a 
notch,  and  then  the  clench  is  laid  down.  No  more  rasping  or 
cutting  should  be  indulged  in  after  this  operation,  as  all  attempts 
to  smooth  off  and  beautify  the  hoof  wall  are  injurious  in  the 
extreme.  The  clip,  or  clips,  when  used,  should  be  driven  down 
by  gradually  decreasing  blows,  commencing  at  the  bottom  where 
the  clip  springs  from  the  shoe. 

When  the  time  for  reshoeing  arrives,  the  old  shoe  should  be 
gently  removed  by  carefully  cutting  away  the  clenches.  The 
pincers  are  then  used  to  start  the  shoe  from  the  foot  so  as  to 
loosen  the  nails,  which  should  then  be  carefully  withdrawn,  one 
by  one.  Particular  care  must  be  taken  that  no  clenches  or  broken 
nails  remain  in  the  hoof. 

If  the  hoof  be  preserved  as  nature  intended  it,  a  horse  can  be 
used  with  ordinary  shoes,  but  if  the  foot  be  pared  and  rasped 
unnecessarily,  the  most  ingeniously  contrived  shoe  will  not  save 
the  animal  from  unsoundness,  discomfort  and  premature  break- 
down. Too  much  care  cannot  be  devoted  to  the  fore  feet,  because 
the  largest  proportion  of  the  animal's  weight  is  borne  by  the  fore 
legs,  and  hence  the  greater  danger  of  injury.  It  is  not  uncommon 
in  garrison,  where  the  ground  is  not  stony,  to  leave  off  the  hind 
shoes  of  cavalry  horses,  for  the  reason  that  the  hind  feet  are  quite 
exempt  from  the  usual  diseases  and  injuries  which  constantly 
threaten  the  fore  feet. 

Sometimes  shoeing  may  be  so  done  as  to  remedy  the  evils 
resulting  from  natural  or  acquired  defects. 

"  Cutting,"  or  striking  and  wounding  the  inner  side  of  the  leg 
with  the  opposite  foot  is  sometimes  a  cause  of  serious  annoyance. 
It  may  arise  from  weakness,  fatigue,  or  from  a  change  in  weight 


THE    HORSE  S    FOOT  257 

of  shoes  or  manner  of  shoeing.  Sometimes  it  arises  from  mal- 
formed legs  or  faulty  action.  The  usual  part  of  the  hoof  with 
which  the  horse  strikes  the  opposite  leg  is  the  inside  toe  or  quarter. 
The  usual  correction  is  to  straighten  the  shoe  at  the  point  where 
it  strikes  and  rasp  off  the  hoof  slightly  to  diminish  its  convexity 
and  thus  avert  "  interfering."  No  nails  should  be  driven  near  the 
point  of  danger. 

Some  horses  have  peculiar  and  awkward  habits  in  lying  down. 
Occasionally  a  horse  folds  his  feet  up  so  that  the  shoe  presses 
against  the  spot  where  the  cincha  rests  and  causes  painful  sores 
from  the  bruises  received  every  time  the  animal  lies  down.  Some 
horses  double  up  a  fore  leg  so  as  to  bring  the  hoof  in  contact  with 
the  elbow,  producing  "  capped  elbow."  This  frequently  develops 
into  an  unsightly  tumor.  It  is  generally  the  inside  heel  which 
causes  the  evil,  and  this  may  be  remedied  by  a  three-quarter  shoe. 
In  any  case,  the  shoe  should  not  be  allowed  to  project  beyond  the 
hoof. 

So  long  as  the  hoof  is  treated  in  a  rational  manner,  there  should 
be  no  occasion  for  the  common  practices  of  oiling  the  hoof  walls 
and  "  stopping  "  the  feet  with  clay,  tar  and  other  compounds. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
STABLE  MANAGEMENT. 

Herding. —  Stables. —  Ventilation. —  Water. —  Feeding. —  Stable  Routine. — 
Grooming. — Nursing  Sick  Horses:  Dicharges;  Hand  Rubbing; 
Sponging;  Hot  and  Cold  Applications;  Steaming;  Poultices;  Band- 
ages; Pulse;  Temperature;  Blankets;  Removing  Shoes;  Balls, 
Drenches;  Injections. 

In  American  cavalry  garrisons  the  horses  are  usually  housed  at 
night,  and  herded  when  not  in  use  during  the  day,  not  only  for 
grazing  but  also  in  order  to  keep  up  the  habit  of  coming  quietly 
to  the  picket  line,  which  is  so  essential  for  field  service.  The 
stables  generally  are  frame  buildings  at  the  northern,  and  open 
sheds  at  the  extreme  southern  stations  and  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  A  few  of  the  new  and  more  permanent  stations  are 
provided  with  brick  or  stone  stables  of  modern  design. 

Doubtless  the  thorough  ventilation  of  the  frame  stables  and 
sheds  is  the  cause  of  the  general  good  health  of  the  horses.  Pure 
air  in  abundance  is  the  one  thing  insisted  upon  for  animals  which 
may  be  called  for  at  any  moment  to  make  a  ride  for  life.  To  carry 
this  idea  out  completely,  open  corrals  or  yards  are  usually  attached 
to  stables,  and  when  not  in  use  or  on  herd  the  horses  are  turned 
loose.  There  is  none  of  that  senseless  hardening  of  horses,  so- 
called,  by  exposing  them  unnecessarily  to  extremes  of  weather, 
nor  on  the  other  hand  any  hot-house  coddling. 

To  accomplish  good  results  constant  personal  supervision  of 
officers  is  necessary;  in  no  instance  is  the  attention  to  duty  or 
neglect  of  it  so  quickly  reflected  as  in  the  condition  of  cavalry 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT  259 

horses.  In  the  field  advantage  must  be  taken  of  every  circumstance 
which  redounds  to  their  benefit.  Only  those  who  have  had  ex- 
perience in  such  matters  can  appreciate  the  difficulty  encountered 
in  keeping  up  the  condition  of  horses  subjected  to  irregular  hours, 
short  rations,  and  carrying  heavy  weights. 

In  garrison  the  stable  should  be  kept  as  even  in  temperature  as 
possible  by  opening  or  closing  doors  and  windows.  During 
violent  storms  or  "  blizzards  "  in  cold  climates  it  may  be  necessary 
to  close  everything  but  the  top  ventilators  to  prevent  suffering. 
As  soon  as  the  storm  has  ceased  thorough  ventilation  should  be 
provided.  The  best  time  to  test  the  ventilation  or  purity  of  air  is 
at  morning  stables  when  the  doors  are  first  opened.  The  stables 
are  seldom  closed  in  summer,  the  doors  being  replaced  by  bars. 

While  ample  ventilation  is  very  necessary,  draughts  should  be 
avoided.  Provision  should  be  made  to  let  in  a  gradual  and  constant 
supply  of  fresh  air,  and  also  for  the  egress  of  the  foul  air  which 
rises.  When  the  horses  are  out  of  the  stable  the  windows  and 
doors  should  be  left  open. 

Ventilating  shafts  should  be  constructed  in  the  roof,  and  the 
number  of  these  should  correspond  with  the  size  of  the  stable 
and  number  of  animals  assigned  to  it.  In  addition  to  these 
ventilators,  the  space  between  the  wall  plate  and  the  roof  is  often 
left  uncovered  in  mild  climates.  There  should  be  openings  of 
from  twenty  to  thirty  square  inches,  covered  with  grating,  left  at 
frequent  intervals  along  the  wall,  a  few  inches  from  the  floor. 
Shutters  should  be  provided  for  these  openings,  so  that  they  may 
be  closed  when  necessary. 

All  ventilators  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  stable  men  can 
easily  close  them  on  either  side,  according  to  the  state  of  the  wind 
and  weather ;  it  should  seldom  be  necessary  to  close  them  on  both 


26O  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

sides  at  the  same  time.  When  hollow  walls  are  used  the  small 
openings,  with  gratings,  may  be  arranged  so  that  the  one  on  the 
outside  will  be  above  the  one  on  the  inside,  which  will  prevent  all 
direct  draughts. 

Ventilation  should  never  be  dependent  upon  the  opening  and 
closing  of  windows,  but  they  should  all  be  arranged  so  that  they 
can  be  utilized  when  the  ordinary  means  of  ventilation  prove 
insufficient. 

Although  not  so  important  as  ventilation,  the  lighting  of  the 
stable  should  receive  careful  attention.  As  far  as  possible  the 
light  supplied  by  windows  should  be  admitted  so  as  not  to  produce 
a  glare  directly  in  front  of  the  horses.  If  the  arrangements  are 
such  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  horses  face  the  windows  the 
window  frames  should  be  put  in  lengthwise  of  the  wall  and  up 
above  the  heads  of  the  horses.  At  night  one  or  more  lamps  are 
hung  in  each  stable. 

The  watering  of  the  horses  requires  careful  supervision  to 
insure  that  they  are  watered  at  the  proper  times  and  are  never 
hurried  while  drinking.  Horses  should  be  watered  three  times  a 
day  in  warm  weather.  When  turned  loose,  free  access  to  water 
should  be  had  at  all  times.  In  winter  twice  a  day  is  as  often  as 
a  horse  will  drink,  as  a  rule.  The  first  watering  should  be  several 
hours  after  sunrise  and  the  last  just  before  being  tied  in  for  the 
night.  The  proper  time  to  water  a  horse  is  before  and  not  im- 
mediately after  feeding. 

In  civil  communities  horses  are  usually  fed  three  times  a  day, 
but  in  the  army  feeding  in  the  morning  and  evening  is  the  general 
rule.  Hay  and  grain  are  fed  in  the  evening  and  grain  in  the 
morning.  When  the  animals  are  not  in  use  the  regular  ration  is 
supplemented  by  as  much  grazing  as  season  and  locality  permit. 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT        „  26l 

When  bran  is  fed  it  is  given  as  a  mash  and  not  mixed  with  the 
whole  grain. 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  comparatively  small,  and  should 
not  be  distended  by  large  feeds  at  long  intervals ;  however,  twice  a 
day  is  all  that  it  is  practicable  to  feed  in  campaign. 

The  inclination  to  eat  depends  upon  climate,  work,  and  the 
nature  and  quality  of  the  horse's  food.  In  many  cases  of  sickness, 
health  is  restored  by  a  change  of  diet,  but  as  a  sign  of  health,  the 
horse's  appetite  is  not  to  be  entirely  relied  upon.  When  horses 
are  sick  they  should  receive  their  food  in  small  quantities,  and  if 
not  completely  eaten,  what  remains  should  be  removed  before  the 
next  feed  is  given. 

After  the  horses  have  finished  their  morning  feed  of  grain  they 
should  be  tied  on  the  picket  line,  where  they  are  to  be  groomed. 
The  stablemen  go  to  work  at  once,  removing  the  manure  and 
shaking  up  the  bedding.  Such  of  the  bedding  as  is  too  much 
soiled  for  further  use  is  put  with  the  manure ;  the  balance  is  forked 
over  and  lightly  piled  in  the  front  end  of  the  stalls.  This  gives  the 
floors  a  chance  to  dry  out,  for  cavalry  stables  on  the  frontier  are 
seldom  provided  with  drains ;  in  any  event  the  stall  will  be  more 
or  less  damp  from  the  urination  of  the  horse  over  night.* 

As  soon  as  the  stalls  have  all  been  cleaned  out  the  manure  is 
loaded  on  the  troop  wagon  and  hauled  to  the  place  designated 
as  the  dumping  ground.  It  is  a  very  common  fault  of  stablemen 
to  overload  the  wagon  and  distribute  manure  along  the  avenues 

*  While  investigating  the  remount  systems  of  England  and  France,  the 
author  observed  that  in  British  cavalry  stables  the  common  practice  is  to 
remove  the  bedding  entirely  instead  of  piling  it  under  the  mangers,  and  in 
French  cavalry  stables  the  bedding  remains  spread  down  in  the  stalls  all 
the  time. 


262  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

and  roads  leading  to  the  dumping  grounds.    This  should  be  pre- 
vented by  the  use  of  extra  side  boards. 

The  hay  is  next  hauled  and  distributed  in  the  stable  at  places 
convenient  for  putting  it  in  the  mangers.  Later  the  straw  is 
distributed,  and  the  stablemen,  beginning  at  one  end  and  working 
on  both  sides,  proceed  to  arrange  the  bedding. 

The  morning  feed  of  grain  is  usually  put  in  the  feed  boxes  at 
the  first  call  for  reveille,  the  feed  cart  being  taken  down  the  center 
of  the  stable  while  the  stable  orderlies  dip  out  the  grain  in  ration 
boxes  made  to  hold  one  feed.  The  grain  for  the  evening  feed  is 
put  in  the  boxes  at  afternoon  stables. 

The  officer  attending  stables  inspects  the  hay,  grain  and  bed- 
ding of  the  horses.  If  the  forage  is  musty,  dirty,  or  otherwise 
unfit  for  the  animals,  he  takes  the  proper  steps  for  obtaining  a 
fresh  supply  without  unnecessary  delay.  Should  the  bedding  be 
too  much  soiled  he  directs  its  removal,  and  causes  fresh  straw  or 
hay  to  be  littered  down.  Stalls  with  earth  floors  should  be 
inspected  frequently  to  see  that  they  are  kept  level,  and  that  holes 
pawed  out  are  refilled. 

Above  all  other  considerations  next  to  pure  air,  dryness  should 
be  insisted  upon  about  the  stables.  Horses  prefer  warmth  and 
dryness,  and  putting  them  in  damp  stables  is  apt  to  cause  debility 
and  disease. 

Grooming  is  essential  to  the  general  health  and  condition  of  the 
domesticated  horse,  and  is  not  altogether  for  appearances.  With 
hard  work  and  high  feeding  the  excretion  of  worn-out  materials 
through  the  skin  is  very  great ;  hence  artificial  means  are  necessary 
to  remove  the  refuse. 

Grooming  removes  from  the  skin  those  particles  of  perspira- 
tion, dust  and  dirt  which  would  otherwise  impede  and  clog  the 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT  263 

free  action  of  the  sweat  and  oil  glands.  It  also  removes  the  scurf 
or  worn-out  cells  which  are  no  longer  required  on  the  surface  of 
the  skin,  and  which  would,  when  cemented  together  by  particles  of 
sweat,  add  to  the  obstruction  of  the  glands.  The  grooming  should 
take  place  outside  of  the  stable  when  the  weather  permits,  to  avoid 
filling  the  mangers  with  dust. 

The  thorough  cleaning  of  the  skin  of  the  horse  is  an  operation 
requiring  both  skill  and  hard  labor.  To  produce  the  greatest 
effect  with  the  least  expenditure  of  power  and  in  the  shortest  time, 
the  trooper  should  aid  his  muscular  strength  with  his  weight.  He 
should  stand  well  away  from  the  horse  and  lean  his  weight  on  the 
brush,  wHich  will  thus  do  its  work  more  effectually  than  if  oper- 
ated by  muscular  strength  alone.  The  working  of  the  brush 
should  follow  the  natural  direction  of  the  hair.  The  currycomb 
should  be  used  as  little  as  possible,  and  principally  to  loosen  accu- 
mulations of  mud. 

When  a  horse  is  worked,  and  grooming  is  neglected,  he  soon 
loses  flesh  and  deteriorates  in  health ;  actual  disease  of  the  skin 
may  follow,  for  the  presence  of  parasitical  insects  is  induced  by 
filth,  and  when  not  disturbed  by  grooming  they  breed  rapidly. 

Horses  should  not  be  washed,  even  on  the  legs,  except  to  re- 
move caked  mud;  they  should  be  at  once  dried  and  groomed 
thoroughly.  Horses  should,  under  no  circumstances,  be  allowed 
to  dry  by  evaporation.  Sponging  the  nostrils  and  dock  is  very 
refreshing  to  the  animal. 

The  sheath  should  be  frequently  cleaned  when  the  weather 
permits.  Some  horses  require  this  much  oftener  than  others 
Care  is  necessary  to  prevent  injury  by  the  finger-nails,  a  slight 
scratch  often  producing  much  swelling.  The  washing  should  be 
done  with  warm  water  and  castile  soap.  It  is  a  common  practice 


264  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

to  follow  washing  by  smearing  the  parts  with  olive  oil.  This 
should  not  be  done,  as  it  causes  filth  to  accumulate  rapidly,  thus 
doing  more  harm  than  good. 

Each  morning  as  soon  as  the  horses  are  tied  on  the  picket  line 
the  blacksmith  should  select  those  which  require  shoeing,  and 
separate  them  from  the  others. 

At  many  posts  where  the  ground  is  free  from  stones  horses  are 
not  shod  continuously,  but  a  proportion  are  left  without  shoes  in 
order  to  let  their  feet  spread  out  and  assume  a  natural  shape. 
This  practice  saves  many  horses  from  suffering  with  contracted 
feet.  Shoes  are  kept  fitted  for  each  horse  at  all  times,  for  thorough 
tests  made  on  service  show  conclusively  that  horses  cannot  stand 
hard  field  service  with  unshod  hoofs. 

In  cold- climates  ice  nails  are  kept  on  hand,  or  shoes  are  fitted 
with  calks  for  such  horses  as  are  likely  to  go  on  service.  After 
horses  are  shod  for  winter  with  sharp  calks  it  is  dangerous  to  turn 
them  loose,  and  even  at  the  picket  line  they  must  be  watched 
constantly  to  prevent  serious  injuries  from  kicking. 

Notwithstanding  the  care  with  which  horses  are  inspected 
before  purchase,  many  with  stable  vices  are  passed  into  the  service 
and  it  requires  patience  and  watchfulness  to  cure  or  minimize  the 
effects  of  their  tricks.  The  more  common  vices  are  pulling  back 
when  tied ;  kicking ;  refusing  to  leave  the  stable  and  sometimes 
scraping  a  rider  against  a  wall  or  fence. 

A  horse  may  sometimes  be  cured  of  pulling  back  and  breaking 
halters  by  putting  a  rope,  with  a  running  noose,  around  his  body, 
the  loose  end  being  carried  forward  between  the  forelegs  and 
tied  to  the  manger.  When  the  horse  settles  back  and  the  rope 
tightens,  he  is  very  apt  to  stop  and  move  forward  again.  If  this 
does  not  effect  a  cure,  take  a  piece  of  new  hemp  rope  and  put  it 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT  265 

under  the  animal's  tail  as  a  crupper;  put  a  knot  in  to  hold  the 
rope  up  on  his  back  and  pass  the  ends  forward  on  each  side  of 
the  neck,  through  the  halter  ring  and  tie  to  the  manger.  One  or 
two  applications  are  usually  sufficient. 

A  horse  sometimes  kicks  the  sides  of  his  stall  apparently  for 
amusement.  Some  horses  kick  at  others  and  even  at  the  stable 
men  passing  in  rear.  Usually  a  kicker  is  dangerous  only  to  the 
unsuspecting  trooper  who  puts  his  hand  familiarly  on  the  animal's 
hind  quarters  before  speaking  to  him.  An  application  of  the  rope 
is  quite  often  effective  in  such  cases.  A  piece  of  small  rope  is 
put  on  each  hind  foot,  with  a  slip  knot,  and  tied  to  the  halter  ring 
or  even  to  the  rings  of  a  snaffle  bit  in  the  horse's  mouth.  He 
should  then  be  given  some  inducement  to  kick  and  when  he  finds 
it  results  to  his  own  injury,  he  is  very  apt  to  give  it  up;  when 
he  does  so  much  care  should  be  taken  not  to  cause  him  to  resume 
the  habit. 

Horses  that  crib  or  gnaw  the  wood  work  may  be  temporarily 
deterred  by  smearing  some  disagreeable  substance  over  the  exposed 
parts,  but  animals  cling  to  this  vice  and  will  resume  it  at  the  first 
opportunity.  The  safest  plan  is  to  cover  the  wood  work  within 
reach  with  tin.  The  practice  of  driving  nails  and  tacks  in  exposed 
wood  work  only  results  in  injuring  the  horse's  teeth  and  lips. 

If  a  horse  refuses  to  leave  the  stable  with  a  rider,  he  should 
be  led  away  and  taken  for  a  ride  of  several  hours.  After  he  has 
been  ridden  until  he  is  no  longer  fresh,  the  rider  should  dismount 
and  work  him  at  the  bending  lessons;  pick  up  his  feet;  mount  and 
dismount  frequently  and  let  the  animal  see  that  he  has  nothing 
to  fear.  Avoid  the  use  of  the  spur  and  whip  on  such  an  animal 
in  the  early  stages  of  his  training  and  be  sure  when  the  time 
comes  to  use  the  spurs,  that  they  be  applied  by  pressure  and  not 


266  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

by  pounding  his  sides  with  the  heels.  This  evil  trait  should  be 
overcome  as  soon  as  discovered,  for  should  a  remount  be  passed 
into  a  squad  for  training  while  still  affected  with  this  habit,  he 
may  be  readily  ruined  and  help  to  spoil  other  horses. 

If  a  horse  in  refusing  to  leave  the  stable,  endeavors  to  rub 
against  a  wall  or  fence,  the  rider  should  not  endeavor  to  turn 
him  away  but  pull  his  head  into  the  obstacle  and  he  will  get 
away  from  it  himself. 

Such  vices  as  have  just  been  mentioned  should  be  discovered 
by  experienced  stable  men  soon  after  remounts  arrive  and  cor- 
rected as  far  as  possible  before  the  animals  enter  the  training 
squads. 

Every  trooper  should  receive  individual  instruction  concerning 
the  proper  treatment  and  care  of  horses  generally,  and  should  be 
informed  as  to  the  following  rules  prescribed  on  the  subject  in 
the  Cavalry  Drill  Regulations : 

"  Never  threaten,  strike,  or  otherwise  abuse  a  horse. 

Before  entering  a  stall,  speak  to  the  horse  gently  and  then  go 
in  quietly. 

Never  take  a  rapid  gait  until  the  horse  has  been  warmed  up 
by  gentle  exercise. 

Never  put  up  a  horse  brought  in  a  heated  condition  to  the 
stable  or  picket  line,  but  throw  a  blanket  over  him  and  rub  his 
legs,  or  walk  him  until  cool.  When  he  is  wet,  put  him  under 
shelter,  and  wisp  him  until  dry. 

Never  feed  grain  to  a  horse  nor  allow  him  to  stand  uncovered 
when  heated.  Hay  will  not  hurt  a  horse,  no  matter  how  warm 
he  may  be. 

Never  water  a  horse  when  heated  unless  the  exercise  or  march 
is  to  be  immediately  resumed. 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT  267 

Never  throw  water  over  any  part  of  a  horse  when  heated. 

Never  allow  a  horse's  back  to  be  cooled  suddenly,  by  washing 
or  even  removing  the  blanket  unnecessarily. 

To  cool  the  back  gradually,  the  blanket  may  be  removed  and 
replaced  with  the  dry  side  next  to  the  horse." 

As  a  rule  the  attachment  which  exists  between  the  troopers 
and  favorite  horses  will  insure  the  latter  good  treatment,  but 
there  are  always  a  few  rough,  vicious  or  stubborn  animals  whose 
condemnation  or  death  would  not  cast  any  gloom  over  the  com- 
mand ;  these  latter  will  require  the  attention  of  officers  to  prevent 
their  being  neglected. 

All  officers  cannot  be  expected  to  become  accomplished  veteri- 
narians, but  each  one  should  familiarize  himself  with  such  injuries 
and  diseases  as  occur  with  frequency  in  cavalry  commands,  and 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  such  simple  remedies  as  may  properly  be 
administered  by  the  stablemen  in  the  absence  of  a  veterinary 
surgeon.  The  commander  of  an  organization,  the  horses  of  which 
are  unthrifty  or  unserviceable  from  preventable  causes,  is  properly 
subject  to  severe  criticism. 

It  should  at  all  times  be  kept  in  mind  that  prevention  of  disease 
is  more  creditable  than  a  successful  cure,  and  that  when  disease  or 
injury  does  come,  good  nursing  will  in  most  cases  avail  as  much, 
if  not  more,  than  medicine. 

There  are  many  minor  ailments  to  which  cavalry  horses  are 
subject  which  may  be  treated  in  the  stalls  or  at  the  picket  line, 
but  for  an  animal  whose  sickness  affects  the  nerves  or  lungs,  rest 
and  quiet  are  essential.  To  this  end,  if  in  garrison,  one  or  more 
box  stalls,  about  twelve  feet  square,  should  be  provided  for  each 
troop ;  this  will  remove  the  sick  horses  from  the  excitement  which 
is  bound  to  exist  about  a  large  stable,  and  give  them  room  to  turn 


268  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

around  and  assume  whatever  positions  may  seem  restful.  The 
box  stalls  should  be  separated  from  the  main  building,  if  practi- 
cable ;  if  not,  they  may  be  partitioned  off  in  the  stable,  so  that 
they  may  be  darkened  if  necessary.  The  walls  should  be  white- 
washed and  the  floor  covered  with  clean  straw. 

Fresh  water  should  be  provided  in  a  bucket,  for  a  feverish  horse 
will  frequently  help  himself  if  left  alone.  In  this  way  some  medi- 
cines can  be  administered,  but  the  sense  of  smell  is  so  acute  in 
horses  that  they  may  refuse  water  if  there  is  any  strong  odor  of 
medicine  attaching  to  it. 

The  appetite  of  a  sick  horse  is  often  very  capricious,  and  during 
fever  he  may  refuse  food  altogether.  Place  before  him,  in  small 
quantities  at  a  time,  as  great  a  variety  of  food  fit  for  his  consump- 
tion as  can  be  obtained.  Uneaten  food  should  be  removed  before 
it  becomes  sour. 

When  not  prevented  by  swollen  head  or  neck,  a  horse  dis- 
charging at  the  nostrils  should,  as  a  rule,  be  fed  from  a  bucket 
placed  near  the  ground,  as  the  depending  position  of  the  head  will 
be  more  comfortable  to  an  animal  in  such  a  condition.  The  bucket 
should  be  used  for  no  other  purpose,  and  should  be  cleaned  care- 
fully after  use.  All  woodwork  should  be  particularly  cleaned 
where  any  particles  of  a  suspicious  discharge  have  been  thrown  or 
lodged. 

Hand  rubbing  of  the  legs  is  very  useful  in  restoring  circulation, 
as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of  removing  any  swelling  arising  from 
want  of  exercise. 

Hot  fomentations  in  cases  of  sprains,  and  to  allay  inflammation, 
are  very  beneficial.  To  obtain  good  results  they  must  be  continued 
for  a  long  time,  say  for  two  hours.  The  water  should  not  be  too 
hot ;  it  should  be  at  such  a  temperature  that  the  hand  can  bear  it 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT  269 

comfortably.  Allow  the  water  to  trickle  over  the  inflamed  parts. 
Flannel  or  woolen  bandages  may  be  wrapped  around  the  parts,  and 
kept  wet  with  warm  wrater ;  they  will  retain  the  heat  for  some  time. 
Fomentations  should  be  repeated  three  times  within  twenty-four 
hours,  and  between  these  operations  the  parts  should  be  warmly 
covered  to  keep  out  the  cold. 

Cold  applications  harden  and  brace  up  the  parts  to  which  they 
are  applied ;  they  also  reduce  heat.  They  are  very  useful  in  cases 
of  bruises,  swellings  and  sprains,  particularly  after  the  inflam- 
mation has  been  reduced  by  hot  fomentations.  In  some  cases  a 
rubber  tube  arranged  to  allow  cold  water  to  trickle  over  a  specific 
part  or  surface  is  of  great  assistance  in  hastening  recovery.  Cold 
water  bandages  are  the  most  common  applications,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  getting  stablemen  to  properly  apply  hot  fomentations, 
An  anodyne  liniment  should  be  used  when  necessary  in  addition  to 
the  water  treatment. 

Steaming  is  very  efficacious  in  cases  of  common  cold  and  other 
diseases  of  a  catarrhal  nature.  Steaming  may  be  quickly  ac- 
complished by  holding  the  animal's  head  over  a  pail  of  hot  water, 
which  should  be  stirred  gently  with  a  whisp  of  hay.  The  steaming 
may  be  done  by  placing  chopped  hay  or  saw  dust  in  the  bottom  of 
a  nose  bag  or  grain  sack  and  pouring  in  a  little  very  hot  water. 
Both  these  methods  are  useful  expedients  for  the  reason  that  they 
are  always  available  in  every  stable  and  also  afford  a  means  of 
getting  chloroform,  carbolic  acid  or  other  medicines  into  the  nasal 
passages  by  inhalation. 

A  simple  machine,  which  affords  the  surest  means  of  thoroughly 
steaming  animals  suffering  from  catarrhal  affections,  consists  of 
a  sheet  or  galvanized  iron  cylinder  arranged  to  hold  a  hot  water 
kettle  made  with  two  detachable  spouts  which  project  through 


270  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

openings  in  the  sides  or  top  of  the  enclosing  cylinder.  The  kettle 
is  held  in  place  by  cross  bars  and  an  alcohol  lamp  below  supplies 
the  heat.  The  steam  is  conveyed  from  each  spout,  by  means  of  a 
rubber  tube,  to  a  canvas  nose  bag  made  without  a  bottom,  and 
attached  to  the  head  of  the  horse  in  the  same  manner  as  a  feed 
nose  bag.  A  tin  funnel  is  arranged  to  fit  each  rubber  tube  to 
prevent  the  end  of  the  tube  from  being  poked  into  the  animals 
nostrils.  When  only  one  spout  is  used  the  other  should  be  closed. 

By  using  both  tubes  it  is  practicable  to  steam  two  animals  at 
the  same  time.  To  do  this  the  apparatus  should  be  placed  at  the 
heel  post  and  the  two  animals  to  be  steamed  backed  into  the  ad- 
joining stalls.  One  attendant  is  necessary  for  each  animal.  Some 
animals  are  very  nervous  about  their  heads  but  as  soon  as  a  sick 
horse  begins  to  get  relief  from  difficult  breathing  he  is  apt  to  stand 
perfectly  quiet  while  being  steamed. 

Poultices  are  often  of  great  service,  but  they  are  difficult  to 
apply.  They  should  be  inclosed  in  some  strong  but  thin  material 
in  order  to  prevent  the  substances  from  which  they  are  made  be- 
coming entangled  with  hair.  They  should  not  be  left  on  long 
enough  to  dry,  as  they  then  irritate  the  affected  parts. 

Bandages  of  cotton  or  wool  are  very  useful  for  holding  poultices 
in  position,  closing  wounds,  compressing  specific  parts,  and  for 
giving  warmth  to  the  legs.  Roller  bandages  are  used  on  the  legs, 
but  the  size  and  shape  of  others  depend  on  their  use.  Usually 
roller  bandages  are  simply  wound  around  the  leg  and  pinned  or 
tied  at  the  top  and  bottom.  If  pressure  is  desired  the  bandage 
may  be  applied  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  It  is 
at  times  not  an  easy  matter  to  keep  a  bandage  in  position  by 
ordinary  means.  The  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  preparing 
some  form  of  harness  to  which  bandage  strings  may  be  attached, 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT 


271 


varying  it  according  to  the  part  of  the  body  or  limbs  to  be  covered 
(figure  114). 

The  pulse  of  a  horse  is  an  important  guide  in  determining  his 
state  of  health.  It  indicates  the  number,  force  and  regularity,  or 
irregularity,  of  the  heart's  action,  and  the  quantity  of  blood  sent 


Figure   114.     Some  methods  of  applying  poultices  and  bandages. 

forth  at  each  beat.  As  a  rule,  the  number  of  pulsations  corresponds 
with  the  heart's  contractions.  The  pulse  of  a  healthy  horse  varies 
from  thirty-four  to  thirty-eight.  It  is  generally  quicker  in  young 
horses  than  aged  ones,  and  also  quicker  in  well-bred  than  in 
heavy,  cold-blooded  animals. 

The  most  convenient  places  for  taking  the  pulse  are  the  arteries 
under  the  jaw  and  inside  the  fore  leg  above  the  fetlock  joint.     It 


272  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

may  be  taken  by  placing  the  ear  at  the  left  side  of  the  chest.  The 
slightest  excitement  when  a  horse  is  sick  will  cause  an  alteration 
in  the  pulse.  The  animal  should  therefore  be  approached  very 
quietly,  and  soothed  for  a  minute  or  two  before  applying  the  finger 
to  the  artery.  The  fore  and  middle  finger  should  be  placed  on 
the  artery  in  a  transverse  direction^  and  not  obliquely. 

A  strong  and  full  pulse  characterizes  health,  and  is  seldom 
found  when  the  animal  is  in  any  morbid  state. 

A  weak  and  small  pulse  is  indicative  of  great  debility,  especially 
if  the  pulse  is  easily  extinguished  by  pressure. 

A  very  slow  pulse  indicates  probable  disease  or  injury  of  the 
brain  or  spinal  cord. 

The  number  of  pulsations  per  minute  under  different  circum- 
stances in  disease  varies  from  twenty  to  one  hundred,  or  even 
more. 

Temperature  in  the  case  of  a  horse  is  ascertained  by  use  of  a 
small  clinical  thermometer,  which  is  inserted  in  the  rectum  and 
allowed  to  remain  about  five  minutes.  The  ordinary  temperature 
in  good  health  is  about  99°  F.  It  should  be  taken  without  exciting 
the  horse  by  removing  blankets  or  moving  him  about.  In  con- 
tinued illness,  where  the  temperature  is  an  important  considera- 
tion, it  should  be  taken  at  the  same  hours  every  day. 

During  the  prevalence  of  influenza  or  other  epizootic  disease  in 
stables,  it  is  advisable  to  take  the  temperature  of  all  horses  daily ; 
a  rise  of  a  few  degrees,  which  indicates  the  approaching  disease, 
is  sufficient  to  order  the  animal  to  be  withdrawn  from  work,  for 
this  prompt  action  will  often  cause  the  disease  to  run  a  milder 
course.  Work  in  the  incipient  stages  of  these  diseases  often 
causes  them  to  assume  a  fatal  form. 

When  the  condition  of  the  horse  requires  artificial  covering  the 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT  273 

blankets  should  be  fastened  on  loosely.  They  should  be  removed, 
shaken,  and  aired  during  the  day,  the  horse  being  covered  with 
others  temporarily  if  necessary. 

In  cases  of  serious  or  prolonged  sickness  the  shoes  should  be 
removed  from  the  horse. 

Artificial  inflammation  is  often  resorted  to  as  a  stimulant  to 
parts  deficient  in  vitality,  or  for  the  relief  of  inflammation  in 
internal  organs.  This  artificial  inflammation  is  often  needed  to 
rouse  to  new  and  healthier  action  parts  which  have  become, 
through  disease,  deficient  in  vital  energy.  The  healing  process  in 
many  ulcerative  diseases  is  very  sluggish  and  languid,  and  the 
effect  of  induced  inflammation  is  often  to  rouse  not  only  the  part 
affected,  but  all  the  neighboring  structures  to  new  and  healthy 
action.  This  treatment  may  vary  from  the  light,  stimulating  fric- 
tion produced  by  hand  rubbing  the  parts  or  a  mild  mustard 
plaster,  to  a  strong  cantharides  blister  or  a  seton. 

Before  applying  a  blister  the  hair  should  be  clipped  from  the 
surface  where  the  medicine  is  to  be  applied.  After  the  blistering 
ointment  has  been  well  rubbed  in,  the  animal's  head  should  be  tied 
so  that  he  cannot  reach  the  blistered  surface  with  his  mouth.  After 
twenty-four  hours  or  more  the  blistered  surface  should  be  washed 
with  warm  water  and  soap,  and  the  parts  thereafter  kept  clean. 
Sometimes  when  the  sprain  is  severe  and  the  pain  great,  it  may 
hasten  recovery  to  remove  the  weight  from  the  injured  member 
by  means  of  a  sling. 

By  seton  is  meant  the  introduction,  by  means  of  a  seton  needle, 
of  a  tape  or  string,  intended  to  act  on  the  deep-seated  tissues  and 
induce  suppuration.  The  management  of  a  seton  requires  a  good 
deal  of  attention.  It  must  be  pulled  up  and  down  in  the  wound 
every  day,  the  pus  carefully  pressed  out,  and  the  orifices  washed 
18 


2/4  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

with  warm  water.  The  two  ends  of  the  tape  or  string  may  be 
tied  together,  or  small  pieces  of  wood  attached  to  the  ends,  to 
prevent  them  from  being  accidentally  drawn  into  the  wound.  The 
tape  should  be  renewed  about  once  a  week,  if  intended  to  be  kept 
in  for  some  time. 

Firing  is  the  most  rapid  way  of  producing  inflammation.  Much 
of  the  firing  done,  however,  is  of  no  value,  and  it  nearly  always 
leaves  a  blemish.  It  should  be  done  only  under  supervision  of  the 
veterinarian,  since  much  irreparable  injury  may  be  done  by  useless 
or  improper  firing. 

Medicine  may  be  administered  to  the  horse  through  the  follow- 
ing channels :  by  the  mouth :  by  inhalation  into  the  lungs  and  air 
passages  ;  by  the  skin  through  absorption  ;  under  the  skin  by  hypo- 
dermic methods,  and  by  injections  into  the  rectum. 

Medicine  may  be  given  by  the  mouth  in  the  forms  of  powders, 
balls  or  capsules,  drenches  and  electuaries. 

Powders  should  be  as  finely  pulverized  as  possible  in  order  to 
secure  rapid  solution  and  absorption.  They  should  be  free  from 
any  irritating  or  caustic  action  on  the  mouth.  If  dry  the  powders 
may  shake  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  manger;  the  practice  is, 
therefore,  to  dissolve  or  suspend  them  in  water  and  sprinkle  on 
the  feed.  Those  without  disagreeable  taste  or  odor  are  readily 
taken  in  the  feed  or  drinking  water. 

Balls  should  be  cylindrical  in  shape,  about  two  inches  long  and 
half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  should  be 
fresh,  and  wrapped  in  tissue  paper  when  given ;  gelatine  capsules 
may  also  be  used.  Balls  are  preferred  to  drenches  when  the 
medicine  is  disagreeable ;  when  the  dose  is  not  large,  and  when 
the  medicine  is  intended  to  act  slowly.  Balls  may  be  made  up  by 
the  addition  of  honey,  syrup  or  soap. 


STABLE    MANAGEMENT  275 

When  medicine  is  given  as  a  drench  enough  water  or  oil  must 
be  used  to  thoroughly  dissolve  or  dilute  it.  Insoluble  medicines 
may  be  given  suspended  in  water,  the  bottle  being  shaken  before 
administering  it.  If  a  drenching  horn  is  not  available,  use  a  long- 
necked  bottle  without  a  shoulder,  of  suitable  size  to  contain  the 
dose.  The  head  should  be  elevated  enough  to  prevent  the  horse 
from  throwing  the  liquid  out  of  his  mouth.  The  halter  strap 
should  be  passed  over  a  limb  or  beam,  but  if  none  is  available  a 
pitchfork  or  pronged  stick  inserted  in  the  halter  will  answer  to 
raise  the  head  until  the  line  of  the  face  is  horizontal,  which  is  all 
that  is  needed  in  any  case.  The  horn  or  bottle  should  be  intro- 
duced at  the  side  of  the  mouth  and  slowly  emptied.  If  the  horse 
does  not  swallow,  remove  the  bottle  and  rub  the  throat  gently. 
If  coughing  or  any  accident  occurs,  lower  the  head  immediately. 
In  no  case  should  drenches  be  given  through  the  nostrils. 

Electuaries  are  medicines  mixed  with  licorice  root  powder, 
molasses  or  syrup,  to  such  a  consistency  that  the  mass  will  stick 
to  the  tongue  and  teeth.  They  are  given  with  a  wooden  paddle  or 
long-handled  spoon. 

Medicines  may  be  administered  to  the  lungs  and  upper  air  pas- 
sages by  insufflation,  which  consists  in  blowing  an  impalpable 
powder  directly  into  the  nostrils,  and  by  inhalation  in  the  case 
of  gaseous  or  volatile  medicines.  The  first-named  method  is 
rarely  resorted  to.  It  is  a  common  and  well-recommended  practice 
to  make  use  of  the  steaming  bag  when  administering  iodine, 
carbolic  acid  or  other  prescribed  medicine  to  the  air  passages. 

Medicines  are  only  applied  to  the  skin  of  a  horse  for  absorption 
in  local  diseases,  usually  as  liniments  or  blisters. 

Medicine  is  frequently  given  under  the  skin  with  the  hypodermic 
syringe.  It  should  be  done  only  by  the  veterinarian. 


276  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

Injections  are  usually  thrown  into  the  rectum  with  a  large 
syringe ;  but  a  straight  tube  about  twelve  inches  long,  of  a  size 
easily  inserted,  and  which  carries  an  upright  funnel  at  the  end,  or 
other  form  of  douche  which  carries  the  liquid  in  by  gravity  is  to 
be  preferred.  This  latter  method  answers  the  purpose  fully  with- 
out the  danger  arising  from  using  too  much  force.  Medicine  is 
injected  in  the  rectum  when  local  action  is  desired,  or  when  it 
cannot  be  retained  by  the  mouth. 

It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  locate  diseases  and  injuries  of  dumb 
animals  and  until  a  reasonably  correct  diagnosis  is  arrived  at, 
treatment  cannot  be  satisfactorily  administered.  Sometimes  a 
horse  appears  sick  and  certain  kinds  of  nursing  and  treatment 
will  suggest  themselves  for  immediate  application,  although  it 
may  be  entirely  apparent  that  the  underlying  cause  of  trouble  has 
not  developed  or  manifested  itself.  Study  and  constant  observa- 
tion are  the  surest  means  of  attaining  confidence  and  correct  judg- 
ment in  diagnosing  diseases  of  the  horse. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
VETERINARY  SUPPLIES  AND  PRESCRIPTIONS 

Veterinary   Supply  Table. — Properties   and  Uses    of    Medicines. — Useful 
Prescriptions. 

The  veterinary  supply  table,  which  has  been  adopted  for  the 
use  of  the  army,  does  not  contain  all  the  medicines  used  by  veteri- 
narians, but  is  quite  sufficient  for  average  troop  use.  Inasmuch 
as  veterinarians  are  not  available  to  accompany  all  detachments, 
it  is  very  desirable  that  stable  sergeants  and  farriers  should 
familiarize  themselves  with  the  use  of  simple  prescriptions  in 
easily  diagnosed  cases.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  when  a  veteri- 
narian is  available  the  operations  of  the  stable  detail  should  be 
confined  to  first  aid  and  nursing.  An  examination  of  the  table  of 
allowances  and  a  study  of  the  simple  prescriptions,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  veterinarian,  will  qualify  the  stable  sergeants  and 
farriers  to  render  intelligent  assistance  in  the  care  and  treatment 
of  sick  horses.  It  will  also  facilitate  the  discovery  of  ailments 
and  their  causes  and  enable  prompt  and  accurate  information  to 
be  conveyed  to  troop  commanders  and  veterinarians. 

VETERINARY  SUPPLY  TABLE. 

Allowance  of  medicines  for  three  months. 

Quantities. 

Articles.  For  100       For  200   For  300 

ani-  ani-        ani- 

MEDICINES.  mals.          mals.       mals. 

Acetanilid    pounds I  iy2  2 

Acid: 

Arsenious    ounces I  I  2 

Boracic    do     ....  4  6  8 

Carbolic,    pure do     16  18  24 

Salicylic    do     4  6  8 

Tannic    do     ....  2  4  6 


278 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


Allowance  of  medicines  for  three  months. — Continued. 


Quantities. 


Articles. 

For  100 

For  200 

For  300 

ani- 

ani- 

ani- 

MEDICINES. 

mals. 

mals. 

mals. 

Aconite,  fluid  extract  of  

ounces. 

I 

2 

3 

Alcohol    

gallons. 

I 

2 

2 

Aloes,  Barbadoes,  in  original 

gourds.  .  .  .ounces.. 

..  .      2O 

24 

32 

Alum    

pounds. 

y2 

y2 

I 

Ammonia  : 

Aromatic    spirits    of,    in 

glass-stop- 

pered  bottles  

do     . 

i 

2 

3 

Aqua    (solution    of),    in 

glass-stop- 

pered   bottles  

quarts.. 

i 

2 

3 

Chloride    of,    granulated, 

in    glass- 

stoppered    bottles  .... 

pounds. 

2 

3 

4 

Belladonna,  fluid  extract  of.  . 

,  ounces.. 

...      4 

6 

8 

Camphor,    gum  '  

pounds. 

i 

i1^ 

2 

Cannabis,   Indica  

,...  do     . 

i 

2 

3 

Cantharides,    powdered  

ounces  . 

i 

2 

3 

Capsicum  

do     . 

...       4 

6 

8 

Charcoal,  willow,  powdered.  . 

pounds. 

...               y2 

I 

i*A 

Copper,  sulphate  of  

do     . 

...     y2 

I 

i 

Collodoin,  flexible,  glass-stoppered  i-ounce 

bottles    

ounces  . 

...       4 

6 

8 

Chloroform    

pounds. 

i 

i 

2 

Cosmoline,  i-pound  cans  

do     . 

...       4 

8 

12 

Creolin    

do     . 

2 

4 

6 

Digitalis,  fluid  extract  of.  .  .  . 

ounces. 

...       4 

6 

6 

Ether,   sulphuric  

pounds. 

I 

2 

3 

Fenugreek,  seeds,  powdered. 

do     . 

I 

2 

3 

Flaxseed,   meal  

do     . 

...     25 

30 

40 

Gentian    

do     . 

i 

2 

3 

Ginger,    powdered  

do     . 

i 

2 

3 

Glycerine    

ounces  . 

...      8 

12 

16 

Iodine,  crystals  

do     . 

...       4 

6 

8 

lodoform    

do     . 

...       4 

6 

8 

Iron  : 

Tincture  of  chloride  of.  . 

do     . 

...      8 

12 

16 

Sulphate  of,  desiccated.., 

do     . 

...      8 

12 

16 

VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS 


279 


Allowance  of  medicines  for  three  months.  —  Continued. 
Quantities. 

Articles 

For  100 

For  200 

For  300 

ani- 

ani- 

ani- 

MEDICINES. 

mals. 

mals. 

mals. 

Lanolin     

ounces.  .  .  . 

8 

16 

24 

Lead,  acetate  of  

pounds  

.  i 

2 

3 

Lime,  chloride  of  

do     .... 

25 

30 

40 

Lunar  caustic  

ounces  .... 

i 

I 

2 

Mercury  : 

Bichloride    of    (corrosive 

sublimate 

tablets)    

do     .... 

8 

12 

16 

Mild  chloride    (calomel)  . 

do     .... 

2 

4 

6 

Biniodide    

do     .... 

I 

2 

3 

Nitre,  sweet  spirits  of  

pounds.  .  .  . 

4 

8 

12 

Nux  vomica,  powdered  

do     .... 

% 

i 

ll/2 

Oil: 

Linseed    

gallons.  .  .  . 

2 

3 

4 

Olive    

do     .... 

y2 

% 

I 

Oil  of  tar  

pounds.  ..  . 

V* 

i 

I 

Oil   of  turpentine  

gallons.  ..  . 

i 

lY2 

2 

Opium  : 

Tincture  of  

pounds  .... 

2 

3 

4 

Powdered    

ounces  .... 

2 

4 

6 

Potassium  : 

Bromide    

pounds.  .  .  . 

2 

3 

4 

Nitrate    

do     .... 

3 

4 

6 

Iodide  

do     .... 

X 

I 

i 

Permanganate   

do     .... 

I 

I 

i 

Quinine,  sulphate  of  

ounces  .... 

4 

6 

8 

Salol    

do     .... 

4 

6 

8 

Sodium,  bicarbonate  

pounds.  .  .  . 

2 

3 

4 

Sulphur  

do     .... 

I 

i 

2 

Strychnine   

drams  

I 

2 

3 

Tar,   pine  

pounds.  ..  . 

I 

2 

3 

Witch  hazel,  distilled  

,  quarts  

2 

4 

6 

Zinc  : 

Sulphate  of  

pounds.  ..  . 

I 

2 

3 

Oxide  of  

ounces  

8 

12 

16 

Chloride    of  

do     .... 

2 

4 

6 

280 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


For  100 
ani- 
mals. 


For  200    For  300 


ani- 
mals. 


Allowance  of  medicines  for  three  months. — Continued. 

Quantities. 

Articles. 

HYPODERMIC  TABLETS. 
Atropine,  sulphate  of,  in  ^-grain  tablets, 

20  tablets  in  each  tube tubes. 

Cocaine,  muriate  of,  in  4I/£-grain  tablets, 

10  tablets  in  each  tube do 

Digitaline,  in  *4-grain  tablets,  10  tablets 

in  each  tube do 

Ergotine,   in  2-grain  tablets,    10  tablets 

in  each  tube do 

Eserine,  sulphate  of,  in   i-grain  tablets, 

10  tablets  in  each  tube do 

Morphine,  sulphate  of,  in  3-grain  tablets, 

10  tablets  in  each  tube do 

Pilocarpine,  muriate  of,  in  i-grain  tablets, 

10  tablets  in  each  tube do 

Strychnine,  sulphate  of,  in  J^-grain  tab- 
lets, 10  tablets  in  each  tube do 

Veterinary  cathartic  capsules,  composed 

of      aloin,       oleoresin,      ginger, 

strychnine    and    calomel     (when 

required    for    in    lieu    of    aloes, 


ani- 
mals. 


Barbadoes  in  gourds) 10 


20 


Allowance  of  veterinary  dressings  for  three  months. 


Quantities. 


For  100       For  200    For  300 
ani-  ani-          ani- 

mals,         mals.        mals. 


Articles. 
DRESSINGS. 

Absorbent  cotton,  J^-pound  packages . . .  pounds ....       2  3 
Antiseptic  gauze,  carbolated,  carton  pack- 
ages  (5  yards) package...       2  2 

Bandages : 

Red    flannel,   4    inches    wide    and   4 

yards  long,  heavy dozen 2  3 

White  cotton,   4  inches  wide  and  4 

yards  long  do     ....       4  6 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  28 1 

Allowance  of  veterinary  dressings  for  three  months. — Continued. 

Quantities. 


Articles.  For  100       For  200    For  300 

ani-  ani-         ani- 

DRESSINGS.  mals.  mals.       mals. 

Oakum,  pound  packages pounds....  10            15            20 

Plaster,  adhesive,  2  inches  wide  and  10 

yards  long rolls I              I              2 

Rubber  tubing,  red,  ^-inch  inside  diame- 
ter    feet 15            20            30 

Silk  for  ligatures : 

Ordinary  size   ounces l/2            V-z            $4 

Heavy  braided do     I              2              3 

Soap,  white  castile pounds....  10            15           20 

Sponges,  surgeon's,  extra  heavy do     I              2              3 

The  following  veterinary  instruments  recommended  by  the  board  to  he 
kept  at  each  post  will  ordinarily  be  in  the  immediate  charge  of  the  vet- 
erinarian, who  will  keep  them  in  the  dispensary  or  in  his  office.  He  will 
be  held  accountable  for  the  articles  and  responsible  for  their  condition: 

Veterinary  instruments,  etc.,  for  each  post. 

Quantities. 

Articles.  For  100       For  200    For  300 

ani-  ani-       ani- 

mals, mals.     rnals. 

Ball  forceps 2  2  2 

Case,  dental i  i  i 

Case,    hypodermic,    containing   bottles,    capacity    of 

barrel  of  syringe  V2  ounce i  i  i 

Case,  hypodermic  antitoxine i  i  i 

Case,  post  mortem i  i  i 

Case,  surgical,  to  contain  the  following  instruments : 

1  bistoury,    probe    pointed;    i    bistoury,    sharp 
pointed;  I  caustic  holder;   i  director,  grooved; 

2  forceps,    artery    (French    snap)  ;    i    forceps, 
dressing;  i  fleam,  three-bladed ;  i  needle,  seton, 
three  sections;  12  needles,  suture,  half  curved, 
spring  eye,  assorted  sizes;  i  probe,  silver,  joint- 
ed; 3  scalpels;  i   scissors,  curved  on  the  flat; 
i  scissors,  straight;  i  tenaculum;  i  trocar  and 

canula,  coecum   (horse) i  i  i 


282  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Veterinary  instruments,  etc.,  for  each  post. — Continued. 

Quantities. 

Articles.  For  100       For  200    For  300 

ani-  ani-         ani- 

mals, mals.        mals. 

Casting  harness,  with  side  ropes 2  2  2 

Catheter,  male,  with  stylet 2  2  2 

Clippers,  hand 2  3  4 

Forceps : 

Bone i  i  i 

Dressing,  with  catch  straight  and  long 2  2  2 

Hones,    oil 2  2  2 

Medicine   droppers dozen i  i  i 

Ophthalmoscope    I  i  i    . 

Powder  shaker,  for  medicine 234 

Probang,  celluloid,  jointed 2  2  2 

Rectal   douche i  i  I 

Reflector,  with  head  band,  4-inch i  i  i 

Seton  needles,  8-inch i  i  i 

Slings,  suspending,  complete 222 

Speculum : 

Bilateral    I  i  i 

Eye i  i  i 

Nasal    I  i  i 

Syringes,  hard  rubber : 

2-ounce   2  3  4 

4-ounce   2  2  3 

Thermo-cautery,    Paquelin's i  i  i 

Thermometer,  clinical 2  2  2 

Tracheotomy  tube i  i  i 

Urine  test  case,  complete i  i  i 

Emergency  or  Held  equipment  of  veterinary  instruments. 

For  each  troop  of  cavalry  and  each  battery  of  field  artillery : 
One  farrier's  case  leather,  folding,  containing  the  following  instruments :  i 
bistoury,  curved,  probe  pointed;  i  bistoury,  curved,  sharp  pointed;  i 
director,  grooved;  i  forceps,  artery;  i  forceps,  dressing;  i  hoof  knife, 
searcher;  needles,  suture,  half  curved;  ^  dozen;  i  probe,  silver;  i 
scissors,  curved  on  flat;  silk,  suture,  heavy;  Bounce;  i  thermometer, 
clinical. 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  283 

I  graduate,  glass,  4-ounce. 

i  rectal  douche. 

I  syringe,  hard  rubber,  I -ounce. 

I  syringe,  hard"  rubber,  2-ounce. 

I  saddle  bags,  farrier's  for  use  in  the  field. 

Equipment  of  veterinary  dispensary. 

funnel,  small  size,  enamel  ware. 

funnel,  medium  size,  enamel  ware. 

graduate  glass,  2-ounce. 

graduate  glass,  4-ounce. 

minim  measure. 

mortar  and  pestle   (wedgevvood),  3%  inches  inside  diameter. 

mortar  and  pestle   (wedge wood),  6l/2  inches  inside  diameter. 

mortar  and  pestle,  glass,  4  ounces. 
I  pill  tile,  10  inches  square. 

i  scales  and  weights  (Troemer's  new  dispensing  scale). 
3  spatulas,  being  i  with  3-inch,  i  with  6-inch,  and  i  with  8-inch  blade. 

Allowance  of  dispensary  supplies  for  three  months. 

Quantities. 


Articles. 

For  100 

For  200 

For  300 

ani- 

ani- 

ani- 

mals. 

mals. 

mals. 

Bottles  : 

i-ounce    

dozen. 

I 

2 

3 

4-ounce    

do    . 

.  .  .         2 

A 

6 

8-ounce  

do 

*t 

6 

•  8 

Boxes  : 

Tin,  ointment,  2-ounce.  .  .  . 

do    . 

I 

2 

3 

Tin,  ointment,  4-ounce  .  .  .  . 

do 

2 

•3 

4" 

Capsules,  i-ounce  capacity..... 

do    . 

2 

o 
3 

1 

4 

Corks,   for  bottles,   four  times 

the  allow- 

ance  of  bottles. 

. 

Labels,  blank  

gross.. 

I 

2 

3 

Stationery:     A  2-quire   blank 

book  for  record 

of  cases 

and   such 

pens, 

pencils,  ink,  and  paper  as  n 

lay  be  necessary. 

Veterinary  panniers,  instruments  and  supplies  should  be  well 
cared  for  in  order  that  they  may  be  ready  for  use  at  all  times,  and 


284  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

also  that  the  great  expense  of  the  mounted  branches  of  the  service 
may  be  kept  down  to  the  lowest  limit  consistent  with  efficiency. 
A  supply  of  medicines  just  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  a  command 
is  much  more  desirable  than  the  accumulation  of  a  large  stock 
apt  to  deteriorate  through  age.  Requisitions  should,  therefore, 
be  prepared  with  great  care.  Issues  should  be  controlled  by  the 
actual  necessities  of  each  command  and  the  quantities  authorized 
by  the  supply  table  should  in  no  case  be  considered  merely  as 
expendable  allowances.  The  hypodermic  tablets  should  be  ad- 
ministered by  veterinarians  only. 

The  accompanying  brief  descriptions  of  the  properties  and  uses 
of  medicines  on  the  supply  table  may  be  useful  to  those  responsible 
for  the  care  of  public  animals. 

Acetanilid. — Used  internally  in  doses  of  from  one  to  four 
drams,  to  reduce  fever,  and  is  also  used  in  cases  of  rheumatism. 
It  is  used  externally  for  its  antiseptic  properties;  usually  dusted 
on  wounds  and  is  an  effectual  remedy. 

Acid,  Arsenious  (Arsenic). — An  irritant  corrosive  poison;  for 
external  use  to  eradicate  warts  apply  one  part  arsenic  with  eight 
or  ten  parts  of  cosmoline ;  given  internally  in  doses  of  one  to  three 
grains  as  a  digestive  tonic,  and  for  skin  diseases,  parasitic  or 
otherwise.  Used  usually  in  combination  with  iron  sulphate, 
ginger  and  gentian.  Also  given  in  cases  of  heaves  or  broken 
wind,  in  three-grain  doses,  twice  daily. 

Acid,  Boracic. — A  valuable  non-irritating  antiseptic;  a  10  per 
cent  solution  is  useful  in  conjunctivitis,  and  abrasions  of  mucous 
membranes  of  the  mouth  and  nasal  cavities.  Excellent  for  dusting 
on  wounds  of  any  kind,  or  as  a  solution ;  often  used  to  disinfect 
the  hands,  instruments,  dressings  and  sponges  before  performing 
operations. 


VETERINARY   SUPPLIES   AND   PRESCRIPTIONS  285 

Acid,  Carbolic, — A  useful  antiseptic,  disinfectant  and  -de- 
odorant ;  when  applied  locally  is  a  mild  anaesthetic,  and  is  irritant 
and  corrosive ;  diluted  with  from  twenty  to  forty  parts  of  water 
as  a  dressing  for  wounds  and  ulcers ;  never  used  full  strength. 
It  is  volatile  and  can  be  used  to  disinfect  stables ;  the  walls,  parti- 
tions and  mangers  may  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
one  to  twenty  of  water.  A  solution  of  the  acid  one  part  to  forty 
of  water,  applied  to  the  skin  kills  acarida,  but  must  be  used  with 
caution,  not  covering  too  great  a  surface  at  a  time,  as  it  may  be 
absorbed  by  the  skin  and  thus  poison  the  animal.  In  half-dram 
doses,  well  diluted,  it  is  sometimes  given  internally  in  those  dis- 
eases caused  by  micro-organisms.  An  ointment  of  one  part 
carbolic  acid  and  six  or  eight  of  cosmoline  or  glycerine  makes  a 
useful  dressing  for  scratches  and  grease  heels,  and  all  abrasions 
of  the  skin. 

Acid,  Salicylic. — An  excellent  antiseptic;  is  dusted  on  wounds 
and  indolent  sores  of  any  kind ;  effectual  in  removing  proud  flesh  ; 
good  results  are  obtained  by  alternating  it  with  carbolic  acid  or 
creolin  solution.  A  10  per  cent,  solution  is  about  the  usual 
strength.  Two  parts  of  the  acid  to  eight  of  cosmoline  makes  a 
good  dressing  for  scratches,  wounds  and  skin  diseases.  For 
rheumatism  give,  internally,  salicylic  acid  one  dram,  nitrate  of 
potassium,  or  bicarbonate  of  soda  two  drams,  repeated  twice 
daily. 

Acid,  Tannic. — A  typical  vegetable  astringent;  may  be  used  to 
dust  on  wounds  to  arrest  bleeding,  but  other  agents  are  usually 
preferred.  It  is  given  internally  in  relaxed  conditions  of  the 
bowels,  as  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  with  powdered  chalk  and 
powdered  opium.  Dose,  one-half  ounce. 

Aconite,  Fluid  Extract  of. — A  dangerous  poison ;  should  be 


286  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

used  with  caution ;  is  useful  in  the  first  stages  of  such  diseases  as 
laminitis,  enteritis,  lymphangitis,  pleurisy  and  pneumonia,  and  the 
commencement  of  fevers  where  the  pulse  is  strong  and  full.  Dose 
is  from  five  to  ten  drops  of  the  fluid  extract  diluted  with  water 
and  given  on  the  tongue ;  repeated  every  two  hours  until  four  or 
five  doses  are  given.  It  is  also  used  with  a  dose  of  aloes  in  colic. 
It  slows  the  action  of  the  heart,  contracts  arterioles  and  reduces 
the  volume  of  blood  sent  to  an  organ  or  tissue,  and  hence  is 
valuable  in  reducing  or  relieving  inflammatory  conditions.  It  is 
used  externally  with  other  remedies  to  relieve  local  inflammation. 
A  good  anodyne  liniment  for  external  application  is  composed  of : 

Witch-hazel,   distilled    5  parts 

Camphor,  spirits  of  5  parts 

Opium,  tincture  of  5  parts 

Aconite    i  part 

Alcohol. — One  of  the  most  valuable  and  important  medicines 
used  in  making  tictures,  extracts  and  liniments.  Given  internally 
as  a  diffusible  stimulant,  antispasmodic,  diaphoretic  and  diuretic. 
It  is  also  a  food,  and  is  readily  assimilated.  Given  internally 
in  cases  convalescing  from  debilitating  diseases  where  the  appetite 
is  capricious,  it  gradually  arouses  the  system  and  helps  to  establish 
convalescence ;  dose,  about  one  ounce  diluted  with  three  parts  of 
water;  given  in  congestion  and  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
pleurisy,  colic,  indigestion  and  diarrhoea,  three  or  four  times  daily ; 
spirits  of  camphor  one  ounce,  tincture  gentian  one  ounce,  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia  one  ounce,  is  good  in  the  later  stages  of  pneu- 
monia ;  the  above  tinctures  are  composed  in  great  part  of  alcohol, 
hence  their  virtue,  to  a  large  extent.  Externally  applied,  alcohol 
is  cooling,  but  when  covered  with  bandages  or  oiled  silk  is  ir- 
ritating and  may  blister.  Good  when  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  water  to  harden  the  skin  of  animals  subject  to  saddle  galls.  If 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  287 

the  skin  is  broken,  mix  with  equal  parts  of  the  whites  of  eggs, 
and  paint  the  parts  over  with  the  paste  until  a  thick  film  is  formed. 
Being  volatile,  bottles  should  be  kept  tightly  corked. 

Aloes,  Barbadoes. — When  freshly  prepared,  aloes  is  the  best 
agent  for  purging  the  horse.  Used  in  colic,  constipation,  impac- 
tion  and  indigestion ;  should  not  be  given  in  inflammation  of  the 
bowels  nor  where  the  respiratory  organs  are  affected,  as  in  cattarh, 
congestion  of  the  lungs,  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  pleurisy  or 
influenza.  For  a  quick  action  it  is  best  given  in  solution  as  a 
drench  composed  of  aloes  six  drams,  calomel  one-half  dram, 
ginger  two  to  four  ounces,  in  a  pint  of  water.  A  ball  is  usually 
composed  of  aloes  six  drams,  calomel  one-half  dram,  and  ginger 
two  drams,  made  up  with  glycerine,  oil  or  soft  soap,  just  enough 
to  cause  the  medicine  to  adhere.  Aloes  are  sometimes  given  in 
one  to  two-dram  doses  as  a  tonic. 

When  aloes  do  not  act  promptly  they  are  sometimes  excreted 
by  the  kidneys,  causing  diuresis ;  in  torpidity  of  the  bowels  some 
practitioners  add  to  the  ball,  or  solution,  one-half  to  one  dram  of 
pulverized  nux  vomica.  Aloes  should  never  be  given  to  pregnant 
mares,  as  they  are  liable  to  cause  abortion.  When  given  as  a 
laxative  and  aloes  do  not  act,  do  not  repeat  but  give  one  pint  of 
linseed  oil. 

Alum. — A  typical  astringent,  and  is  slightly  irritant ;  generally 
used  externally  as  a  styptic,  astringent  and  desiccant ;  in  ulcerated 
conditions  of  the  mouth  a  saturated  solution  of  alum  is  good ;  used 
as  a  spray  or  gargle  for  sore  throat ;  is  a  soothing  application  for 
burns  or  blistered  surfaces ;  good  also  for  the  same  purposes  when 
combined  with  an  equal  quantity  of  borax  or  boracic  acid  dis- 
solved in  water ;  dusted  on  an  open  joint,  it  often  gives  excellent 
results.  Given  occasionally  internally,  alum  powdered,  one  dram, 


288  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

opium  powdered,  one  dram,  water  one-half  pint,  as  a  drench;  in 
cases  of  diarrhoea  repeated  twice  or  three  times  daily. 

Ammonia,  Aromatic  sp,  of. — An  expectorant  and  stimulant; 
given  in  cases  of  chronic  cough  and  in  the  later  stages  of  pneu- 
monia and  bronchitis ;  is  good  in  cases  of  indigestion,  flatulent  and 
spasmodic  colic ;  in  such  cases  after  administering  a  ball  of  aloes, 
give  as  a  drench,  aromatic  sp.  of  ammonia  two  ounces  and  can- 
nabis  indica  one  dram  in  one  pint  of  water.  Tincture  of  opium  is 
sometimes  given  instead  of  cannabis  indica,  but  practitioners 
generally  prefer  the  latter. 

Ammonia,  Solution  of. — Is  generally  used  externally  as  a 
stimulant ;  is  a  constituent  of  many  different  liniments ; 

Ammonia,  solution  of I  part 

Linseed  oil    i  part 

well  shaken,  and  applied  with  friction  is  excellent  for  sore  throats. 
For  another  good  liniment  take : 

Ammonia,  solution  of   I  part 

Turpentine,  oil  of  I  part 

-Linseed  oil   3  parts. 

These  liniments  irritate  the  skin,  but  no  permanent  blemish 
will  result  if  made  as  directed. 

Ammonia,  Chloride  of. — Is  given  to  stimulate  the  respiratory 
mucous  membrane,  and  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestinal 
tract,  promoting  secretion  and  relieving  gastric  and  bronchial 
catarrh ;  given  in  two  dram  doses  well  diluted  with  water.  A 
cooling  lotion  for  local  inflammations  the  result  of  sprains  and 
bruises,  is  made  of 

Ammonia,  chloride  of    4  ounces. 

Potassium  nitrate    4  ounces. 

dissolved  in  about  one  quart  of  water. 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  289 

Belladonna,  Fluid  Extract  of. — An  active  poison ;  medicinal 
doses  are  antispasmodic  and  anodyne ;  they  dilate  the  pupil  when 
given  internally,  or  applied  externally  to  the  eye,  and  relieve  pain 
and  irritability ;  belladonna  is  given  internally  in  influenza,  bron- 
chitis, pneumonia,  sore  throat ;  to  relieve  abdominal  pain,  and  in 
irritation  of  the  bladder,  uterus,  kidneys  or  rectum.  Used  ex- 
ternally in  the  form  of  liniments,  or  added  to  poultices  to  allay 
local  inflammation  in  wounds,  frostbites,  burns,  bruises,  cracked 
heels  and  saddle-galls.  The  dose  of  belladonna  is  one  dram  of  the 
extract  and  from  one  to  two  ounces  of  the  tincture,  diluted  with 
four  parts  of  water. 

Belladonna,  ext.  of  -. .  . .  I  dram 

Ammonia,  aro.  sp  .of I  ounce 

Camphor,  sp.  of    '.  . .  .  I  ounce 

is  good  for  chronic  coughs,  laryngitis,  sore  throat,  or  affections 
of  the  lungs  ;  diluted  in  one-half  pint  of  water,  given  three  of  four 
times  daily.  For  a  tonic  give  a  ball  two  or  four  times  daily  of 

Belladonna,  ext.  of  I  dram 

Ginger    3  drams 

Gentian    2  drams. 

Generally  given  in  tetanus  in  doses  of  two  to  three  drams,  re- 
peated three  or  four  times  daily ;  the  solid  is  better  in  these  cases 
because  of  the  ease  of  administration ;  it  is  usually  placed  between 
the  teeth,  allowing  the  animal  to  suck  it  at  his  pleasure. 

Camphor,  Gum. — Generally  used  as  spirits,  or  the  tincture  of ; 
prepared  by  dissolving  one  part  of  camphor  in  seven  or  eight  parts 
of  alcohol ;  in  this  form  it  is  applied  to  sprains,  bruises  or  con- 
tusions, and  is  sometimes  applied  to  wounds.  Camphor  liniment 
is  made  of 

Camphor,  sp.  of 2  ounces 

Ammonia,  Water  of 2  ounces 

Turpentine 2  ounces 

Water    I  pint. 

19 


2QO  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

This  is  an  excellent  liniment ;  apply  externally,  well  rubbed  in,  in 
cases  of  sore  throat ;  to  the  sides  of  the  chest  in  pneumonia,  pleu- 
risy, etc. ;  also  used  for  sprains  and  bruises.  Given  internally, 
the  gum  is  useful  in  relieving  coughs,  especially  if  chronic ; 
camphor  gum  one  dram,  belladonna  one  dram,  given  as  a  ball, 
three  times  daily. 

Cannabis  Indica. — An  antispasmodic  and  anodyne ;  is  recom- 
mended in  colics,  acute  indigestion,  impaction  and  constipation 
instead  of  the  preparations  of  opium ;  good  also  in  tetanus  and 
other  painful  conditions ;  it  relieves  pain  and  irritability  without 
interfering  with  the  secretions  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  ;  dose, 
one-half  to  one  dram. 

Cantharides,  po^vdered. — Is  generally  used  for  its  counter- 
irritant  properties ;  the  following  are  excellent  blister  prepara- 
tions : 

Cantharides     I  part 

Mercury,    biniodide    I  part 

Cosmoline    8  parts 

or 

Cantharides     2  drams 

Cosmoline 8  drams 

Capsicum  (Cayenne  pepper). — An  irritant,  stomachic  and 
rubefacient ;  given  internally  in  mild  cases  of  indigestion  in  com- 
bination with  ginger  and  gentian ;  dose,  one-half  to  one  dram.  As 
a  tincture  sometimes  added  to  colic  drenches  in  one-half  to  one 
ounce  doses ;  sometimes  added  to  poultices  or  plasters  for  its 
counter-irritant  effects. 

Charcoal. — Is  used  to  dust  on  foul,  suppurating  wounds ;  acts 
as  a  mild  antiseptic,  desiccant  and  removes  foul  odors.  Given 
internally  in  one-half  to  one-ounce  doses,  in  flatulent  colic,  acute 
indigestion  or  where  there  is  fermentation  of  food,  and  in  diar- 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  29! 

rhoea.  Where  water  contains  organic  matter,  thoroughly  stir  in 
some  charcoal  and  use  water  after  it  has  settled. 

Copper,  Sulphate. — An  irritant  poison ;  in  medicinal  doses  it  is 
an  antiseptic,  astringent  and  tonic ;  combined  with  powdered 
opium  it  is  sometimes  used  internally  in  cases  of  chronic  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery; 

Copper   sulphate    I  dram 

Opium,    powdered    I  dram 

should  be  given  as  a  ball  twice  or  three  times  daily,  preferably 
in  the  morning,  for  a  week  if  necessary.  As  a  ball  with  linseed 
meal  it  destroys  intestinal  worms,  and  is  a  useful  tonic.  Ex- 
ternally, undiluted,  it  is  caustic,  stimulant  and  antiseptic;  used 
to  dust  on  wounds  having  excessive  granulation,  or  proud  flesh. 
For  use  as  an  antiseptic  for  wounds,  take 

Copper,  sulphate  of  I  dram 

Water    i  quart. 

Collodion,  Flexible. — Is  useful  in  making  adhesive  plasters  as 
applied  to  some  wounds  to  keep  the  parts  together ;  it  is  also  used 
for  skin  abrasions  and  some  incised  wounds,  especially  in  the 
region  of  joints ;  cut  or  shave  the  hair  surrounding  the  wound, 
render  it  aseptic,  then  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  apply  several 
applications  of  collodion;  it  keeps  the  parts  together,  and  when 
thus  protected  wounds  readily  heal  by  first  intention. 

Chloroform. — Is  used  to  render  the  animal  unconscious  during 
painful  and  prolonged  operations,  and  for  such  purpose  the  fol- 
lowing mixture  will  be  found  excellent : 

Alcohol    I  part 

Chloroform    2  parts 

Sulphuric  ether 3  parts. 

Given  internally  in  from  one  to  two-dram  doses ;  it  is  a  reliable 
antispasmodic,  stimulant  and  anodyne ;  given  in  colics  and  acute 
indigestion.  It  is  also  used  in  making  liniment. 


HORSES,   SADDLES   AND  -BRIDLES 

Cosmoline. — Is  used  as  a  basis  for  the  different  ointments,  and 
is  excellent  for  the  purpose,  because  it  does  not  become  rancid ; 
useful  on  abrasions  of  the  skin  and  minor  lesions ;  it  effectually 
excludes  the  air  and  keeps  the  parts  soft. 

Creolin. — A  very  valuable  non-irritating,  non-poisonous  anti- 
septic, disinfectant  and  deodorizer ;  used  for  all  classes  of  wounds, 
and  is  an  effectual  destroyer  of  parasites ;  can  be  used  in  almost 
any  strength,  but  is  usually  diluted  with  thirty  to  fifty  parts  of 
water. 

Digitalis,  Fluid  Extract  of, — A  very  dangeoous  poison ;  is  a 
valuable  heart  stimulant  and  diuretic ;  medicinal  dose  of  the  fluid 
extract  is  from  ten  to  twenty  drops  diluted  with  four  parts  of 
water. 

Ether,  Nitrous  (Sweet  spirits  of  niter). — A  diffusible  stimu- 
lant, antispasmodic,  diuretic  and  diaphoretic;  used  in  spasmodic 
colic  and  other  intestinal  troubles ;  congestion  and  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  influenza,  pleurisy,  etc.  For  colic  mixture : 

Nitrous  ether   i     ounce 

Cannabis  Indica    I     dram 

Tincture  of  Ginger  l/2  ounce 

dilute  with  one  pint  of  water  or  linseed  oil.  Repeat  dose  in  one 
hour  if  necessary. 

Ether,  Sulphuric. — A  diffusible  stimulant,  narcotic  and  an- 
aesthetic (local  or  general).  Good  in  colics  and  acute  indigestion. 
If  given  internally,  as  in  colic,  give 

Ether,  sulphuric i  to  2  ounces 

Cannabis  Indica  i     dram 

Ammonia,  aromatic  sp i  to  2  ounces 

diluted  with  linseed  oil ;  this  may  be  repeated  until  one  quart  of 
oil  is  given,  then  water  can  be  used  instead  of  oil.  Used  exter- 
nally as  a  spray  to  produce  loss  of  sensation  of  a  part  in  minor 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  293 

operations,  such  as  opening  abscesses.  Keep  bottle  tightly  corked 
as  it  is  volatile. 

Fenugreek,  powdered. — Is  used  to  disguise  the  taste  and  smell 
of  disagreeable  medicines,  and  is  valuable  for  this  purpose  in  one- 
half  dram  doses. 

Fla.rseed  Meal. — Principally  used  in  making  poultices  and  balls 
and  as  a  basis  for  powders ;  when  thus  used  helps  to  disguise  the 
taste  of  medicines  :  as  a  poultice  take  about  one  quart  of  meal,  and 
warm  water  enough  to  moisten  it  thoroughly ;  medicines  are  often 
added  to  poultices  before  applying  them.  Flaxseed  is  an  excellent 
food;  being  a  natural  laxative  it  is  often  given  along  with  other 
food  to  horses  in  poor  condition ;  it  aids  digestion  and  improves 
the  condition ;  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  bladder  or  bowels 
it  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  tea,  which  is  made  by  pouring  a 
gallon  of  boiling  water  on  a  quart  or  two  of  meal,  stirring  it  for 
a  few  minutes,  then  leaving  it  to  cool  and  settle ;  it  is  then  poured 
off  and  given  in  any  quantity  instead  of  drinking  water. 

Gentian. — A  bitter  tonic  and  is  devoid  of  astringency ;  given  to 
improve  the  appetite ;  useful  in  dyspepsia ;  given  in  almost  any 
debilitating  disease,  after  the  inflammatory  stage  has  passed  off ; 
it  gradually  and  permanently  improves  the  appetite,  promotes  the 
intestinal  secretions  and  hence  is  a  \aluable  tonic. 

Ginger. — Is  often  given  along  with  a  ball  of  aloes  to  prevent 
griping  and  to  assist  the  action  of  the  purgative ;  like  gentian,  is 
a  useful  bitter  tonic.  When  added  to  colic  drenches  the  dose  is 
from  two  to  four  drams. 

Glycerine. — Is  used  principally  for  external  applications ;  a 
liniment  made  of  carbolic  acid,  one  dram,  and  glycerine,  eight 
drams,  is  much  used  for  scratches,  sore  heels,  chafes  and  wounds 


294  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

exposed  to  the  air ;  should  be  applied  once  or  twice  daily.  As  a 
dressing  for  bandaged  wounds,  use 

Creolin    I  dram 

Glycerine     2  drams 

Water     6  or  8  ounces. 

This  solution  is  effectual  in  destroying  lice  and  the  parasites  of 
mange ;  also  useful  in  other  skin  diseases ;  it  may  be  used  with 
twice  the  quantity  of  water  to  inject  into  the  rectum  to  destroy 
pin  worms. 

Iodine. — Is  an  excellent  remedy ;  given  internally  in  doses  of 
one  to  two  drams,  no  medicine  is  so  effectual  in  diabetes  insipidus ; 
dissolved  in  half-pint  of  water  and  given  twice  or  three  times 
daily,  generally  effects  a  cure  in  three  days.  Is  also  given  in 
chronic  glandular  enlargements,  as  iodide  of  potassium,  in  one- 
dram  doses,  twice  daily.  Equally  serviceable  in  ascites,  or  dropsy, 
and  chronic  swelling  of  the  legs,  especially  the  later  stages  of 
lymphangitis  and  in  hydrothorax.  Used  externally  as  a  stimulant 
and  blister  in  chronic  enlargements ; 

Iodide  of  potassium  i  part 

Iodine,  crystals   I  part 

Cosmoline    6  parts 

makes  an  excellent  application  for  such  conditions. 

lodoform. — One  of  the  best  and  most  reliable  antiseptics  in  use  ; 
is  usually  dusted  on  wounds  of  any  condition ;  an  ointment  made 
of  iodoform,  two  parts,  and  cosmoline,  eight  parts,  is  a  convenient 
way  of  applying  it. 

Iron,  Tincture  of  the  chloride  of. — A  valuable  restorative  and 
tonic;  given  internally  in  purpura,  influenza  and  to  anaemic  and 
debilitated  patients ;  it  is  useful  in  destroying  intestinal  worms ; 
dose  internally,  one-half  to  one  ounce,  given  in  ten  ounces  of 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  2Q5 

water.  For  use  as  a  spray  in  ulcerated  conditions  of  the  throat, 
take 

Iron,  tr.  of    I  part 

Glycerine     I  part 

Water    8  parts. 

Externally  it  is  used  for  its  astringent  and  styptic  properties ;  two 
drams  to  a  pint  of  water  injected  into  the  rectum  destroys  pin 
worms  ;  a  little  of  the  tincture  placed  upon  some  cotton  and  applied 
to  bleeding  wounds,  arrests  the  flow  of  blood. 

Iron,  Sulphate  of. — In  one-dram  doses  is  an  excellent  tonic  for 
any  of  the  purposes  for  which  the  tincture  is  used. 

Iron,   sulphate    . I     dram 

Arsenic     3     grains 

Fenugreek    l/2  dram 

given  in  a  bran  mash,  and  repeated  twice  daily  is  a  useful  tonic 
for  anaemic  or  debilitated  patients. 

Lanolin. — Is  used  as  a  base  for  ointments,  the  same  as  cosmo- 
line ;  is  supposed  to  have  greater  penetrating  power,  and  like 
cosmoline,  is  bland  and  non-irritating;  used  in  the  same  propor- 
tions and  under  the  same  conditions  as  cosmoline. 

Lead,  Acetate  of. — A  most  valuable  astringent ;  given  internally 

it  checks  hemorrhages  from  the  stomach  and  lungs,  or  other 
organs.  Used  sometimes  to  check  diarrhoea ; 

Acetate  of  lead  l/2  dram 

Powdered  opium    i     dram 

Water    y2  pint 

given  daily.  Externally  it  is  used  in  solution  for  local  inflam- 
mations, bruises,  burns,  sprains,  sore  backs,  and  sitfasts  (after 
the  core  has  been  cut  out)  ;  the  following  prescription  is  recom- 
mended for  the  purpose : 

Lead,  acetate  of  i  ounce 

Zinc,  sulphate  of  ' i  ounce 

Water    i  quart. 


296  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

This  is  called  the  "  white  lotion,"  one  of  the  most  popular  and 
useful  preparations  in  veterinary  practice. 

Lime,  Chloride  of. — Is  much  used  as  a  disinfectant  and 
deodorizer ;  it  is  cheap,  but  the  fumes  of  chloride  of  lime  are  dis- 
agreeable to  horses,  therefore  other  disinfectants,  such  as  carbolic 
acid  and  creolin  are  generally  selected  for  use  about  stables  and 
aboard  transports. 

Lunar  Caustic  (Nitrate  of  silver). — Is  used  to  remove  fungoid 
growths  or  proud  flesh  and  to  stimulate  indolent  sores  and  ulcers 
to  a  healthy  action ;  the  sore  should  be  cleaned  and  while  moist 
the  stick  of  caustic  should  be  touched  to  all  its  parts ;  repeat  once 
daily  until  a  healthy  condition  is  established.  To  remove  the 
cloudiness  remaining  after  an  attack  of  ophthalmia,  apply  daily 
with  a  camel's-hair  brush  a  solution  of  five  grains  of  nitrate  of 
silver  to  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

Mercury,  Bichloride  of  (Corrosive  sublimate  tablets). — A  con- 
venient and  valuable  antiseptic ;  used  in  solutions  of  from  I  to 
500,  i  to  1000,  or  i  to  2000,  for  most  classes  of  wounds ; 
effectually  destroys  parasites  infesting  the  skin;  for  this  purpose 
do  not  use  too  strong  a  solution ;  i  to  1000  is  strong  enough,  and 
do  not  cover  too  large  a  surface  at  a  time ;  one-sixth  the  surface 
of  an  animal  is  enough  for  one  day. 

Mercury,  Mild  chloride  (Calomel). — Internally  is  a  cathartic; 
stimulating  the  liver,  causes  increased  secretion  and  excretion  of 
bile  ;  given  usually  with  a  ball  of  aloes.  Dose, 

Calomel    */2  dram 

Aloes    6    drams 

Ginger    2     drams 

made  up  into  a  ball  with  glycerine  or  molasses.    Calomel  is  almost 
a  specific  in  thrush ;  the  parts  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  '  297 

soap  and  warm  water ;  while  moist  the  calomel  should  be  dusted 
in  and  the  parts  covered  with  oakum,  and  a  bandage  applied,  to 
afford  pressure  and  keep  the  parts  clean.  A  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  calomel  and  iodoform  is  also  good  for  the  same  purpose. 
Mercury,  Biniodide. — Is  a  penetrating  counter-irritant ;  is  used 
in  abnormal  bony  deposits,  sprained  tendons  and  bursal  enlarge- 
ments. 

Mercury,  biniodide  I  dram 

Cantharides     I  dram 

Cosmoline    8  drams 

should  be  rubbed  upon  the  enlargements  every  morning  until  three 
applications  are  made ;  after  third  application,  wait  twenty-four 
hours ;  then  wash  the  parts  carefully  with  warm  water  and  castile 
soap,  and  apply  some  cosmoline  or  olive  oil.  This  preparation  is 
good  for  splints,  spavins,  sidebones  and  ring-bones. 

Nux  Vomica,  powdered. — A  bitter  tonic  (nerve)  used  to  im- 
prove the  appetite  by  stimulating  nerve  force ;  increases  the 
peristaltic  movement  of  the  bowels ;  given  in  indigestion,  con- 
valescence from  debilitating  diseases,  paralysis,  influenza,  rheu- 
matism and  constipation.  Dose,  one-half  to  one  dram.  Given 
sometimes  in  half-dram  doses  to  assist  the  action  of  purgative 
medicine. 

Oil,  Linseed. — Is  a  good  laxative  for  nearly  all  classes  of 
patients ;  the  dose  for  the  horse  is  one  pint  to  one  quart,  given  as 
a  drench;  used  in  colics,  constipation  and  indigestion. 

Linseed  oil  '. 8  ounces 

Aloes     4  drams 

Ginger    2  drams 

is  a  good  laxative.     When  aloes  do  not  act,  rather  than  repeat 

the  dose  of  aloes,  give  one  pint  of  linseed  oil,  as  it  is  usually  safer. 

Oil,  Olive. — Used  internally  for  diluting  irritating  medicines, 


298  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

externally  for  oiling  blistered  surfaces,  and  for  making  liniments 
and  ointments.  Not  used  much  as  a  purgative. 

Oil  of  Tar. — Is  used  externally  to  cure  mange,  scab  and  other 
parasites  and  skin  diseases.  Given  internally  for  the  cure  of 
chronic  cough,  in  doses  of  one-half  dram ;  repeat  twice  daily. 

Oil  of  Turpentine. — Its  actions  are  antispasmodic,  stimulant, 
diuretic  and  diaphoretic.  Given  in  acute  indigestion,  flatulent 
colic,  and  for  the  destruction  of  internal  parasites.  When  given 
to  destroy  worms,  the  animal's  food  is  to  be  restricted  somewhat ; 
on  an  empty  stomach  give  one  to  two  ounces,  diluted  with  one  pint 
of  water,  followed  the  next  morning  with  a  ball  of  aloes.  One 
ounce  in  one  pint  of  oil  is  sometimes  injected  into  the  rectum  to 
remove  rectal  worms.  When  applied  externally  it  is  usually  in 
the  form  of  liniments  of  various  kinds. 

Opium,  Tincture  of  (Laudanum). — One  of  the  most  important 
medicines  with  which  we  have  to  deal.  With  its  alkaloid,  mor- 
phine, it  is  given  to  relieve  irritability,  pain  and  spasms  by  pro- 
ducing sleep ;  this,  however,  is  not  as  noticeable  in  the  horse  as  in 
man.  Good  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  colics,  acute  indiges- 
tion, impaction  of  the  bowels,  and  to  counteract  pain  of  almost 
any  kind,  internally  and  externally.  In  all  cases  of  abdominal  pain, 
except  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  practitioners  now  generally 
prefer  cannabis  indica ;  opium  dries  up  the  secretions  of  the  bowels 
and  generally  in  these  cases  the  aim  is  to  augment  the  secretions. 
The  dose  internally  is  from  one  to  two  ounces.  Externally  is  an 
anodyne ;  an  excellent  remedy  to  relieve  local  pain  and  inflam- 
mation is  composed  of 

Witch-hazel     2  ounces 

Camphor,  sp.  of   2  ounces 

Laudanum  .  .2  ounces. 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  299 

Morphia  should  only  be  prescribed  by  the  veterinarian.  Dose, 
three  grains  hypodermically. 

Opium,  powdered. — Has  the  same  actions  as  the  tincture ;  and 
is  generally  prescribed  in  one-half  to  one-dram  doses  in  cases  of 
relaxed  conditions  of  the  bowels. 

Potassium  Bromide. — Is  given  to  quiet  irritability  or  excite- 
ment ;  is  peculiarly  suitable  in  cases  where  convulsions  or  cerebral 
excitement  are  present ;  given  in  doses  of  from  one-half  to  one 
ounce  dissolved  in  the  drinking  water ;  may  be  repeated  every  two 
or  three  hours. 

Potassium  Nitrate. — Promotes  the  secretions  of  the  skin,  lungs 
and  kidneys,  hence  is  valuable  for  reducing  fever,  and  to  increase 
the  flow  of  urine.  It  is  given  dissolved  in  the  drinking  water,  or 
may  be  mixed  with  the  food.  In  cases  of  founder  it  is  a  remedy 
of  great  value ;  dose,  two  to  three  ounces,  three  times  daily ;  this 
treatment  may  be  continued  for  two  or  three  days  without  danger. 
As  a  diuretic,  or  to  reduce  fever,  give  doses  of  from  one-fourth 
to  one  ounce  three  times  daily.  For  use  externally,  one  ounce  dis- 
solved in  one  pint  of  water  is  a  cooling  mixture. 

Potassium  Iodide. — Acts  on  the  lymphatic  system,  and  is  ex- 
creted principally  by  the  kidneys,  thus  acting  as  a  diuretic ;  given 
internally  in  the  early  stages  of  convalescence  in  chronic  glandular 
enlargements  and  to  remove  the  consolidation  in  later  stages  of 
pneumonia,  lymphangitis  and  chronic  swellings  of  the  limbs.  Is 
also  given  sometimes  in  rheumatism,  and  some  skin  diseases.  It 
is  useful  internally  and  externally  in  cases  of  goitre  or  swollen 
thyroid  glands  of  the  neck.  Dose,  internally,  one  to  four  drams, 
diluted  with  water,  repeated  twice  daily.  For  external  use,  take 
potassium  iodide  one  dram,  iodine  crystals  one  dram,  rub  together 
in  a  mortar  until  both  are  dissolved ;  then  add  eight  drams  of 


3°°  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

cosmoline ;  this  makes  an  excellent  absorbent  ointment  to  rub  on 
chronic  enlargements. 

Potassium  Permanganate. — Is  used  as  a  disinfectant  and  de- 
odorizer. Used  to  disinfect  instruments,  sponges  and  dressings ; 
also  foul  smelling  wounds.  A  5  per  cent,  solution  is  generally 
sufficient. 

Quinine,  Sulphate  of. — An  antiseptic,  tonic  and  febrifuge.  It 
improves  the  appetite  and  reduces  the  fever  of  many  diseases. 
For  malaria,  lung  diseases,  pleurisy,  pyaemia,  septicaemia  and  in- 
digestion, use  one  to  three  drams.  For  purpura  and  anaemia  give 
twice  daily,  quinine  one  dram,  iron  sulphate  one  dram,  made  into 
a  ball. 

Salol. — Is  valuable  for  rheumatism ;  reduces  fever ;  good  in 
indigestion,  especially  if  there  is  fermentation  of  food;  is  dusted 
on  wounds  and  is  an  excellent  dressing  for  burns.  When  given 
internally,  dose  one  to  six  drams. 

Sodium  Bicarbonate. — Is  used  to  correct  acidity  of  the  stomach, 
and  as  an  alterative.  It  relieves  indigestion  and  flatulence.  In 
cases  of  chronic  indigestion  is  often  used  as  follows : 

Sodium  bicarbonate    y^  ounce 

Nux   vomica    i     dram 

Fenugreek    y2  dram 

repeated  twice  daily  in  a  bran  mash. 

A  solution  makes  a  cooling  lotion  and  relieves  the  pain  of  burns. 
In  combination  with  potassium  nitrate,  two  drams  each,  is  ex- 
cellent for  reducing  fevers ;  this  may  be  repeated  twice  or  three 
times  daily. 

Sulphur. — Is  used  externally  to  destroy  parasites  of  the  skin, 
as  mange,  ringworm,  lice,  etc.  After  the  parts  have  been  thor- 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  3<DI 

oughly  cleaned  with  castile  soap  and  warm  water,  apply  an  oint- 
ment made  of 

Sulphur    2  drams 

Cosmoline  or  Lanolin  I  ounce. 

It  is  excellent  for  disinfecting  stables ;  remove  horses,  trash, 
litter,  dust,  etc.,  close  the  openings,  take  one-half  pound  of  sulphur 
and  one-fourth  pound  of  charcoal ;  put  on  a  bed  of  burning  coals, 
placed  in  a  pan  or  other  dish,  and  let  the  fumes  thoroughly  per- 
meate the  stables,  keeping  the  building  tightly  closed  for  twenty- 
four  hours. 

Strychnine. — An  active  poison  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
nux  vomica,  but  should  not  be  given  except  under  the  direction 
of  a  veterinarian.  - 

Tar,  Pine. — An  antiseptic,  stimulant,  diuretic,  expectorant; 
destroys  parasites ;  useful  in  coughs  and  bronchitis.  It  is  a  stimu- 
lant to  the  skin,  and  is  sometimes  prescribed  for  mange  and  other 
parasitic  diseases,  including  lice.  Also  used  for  thrush  and  canker 
of  the  foot,  and  sometimes  for  suppurating  corns. 

Witch-hazel. — A  cooling  antiseptic,  astringent  wash,  good  for 
inflamed  tendons,  bruises  and  sprains ;  may  be  used  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water ;  for  an  excellent  anodyne  liniment,  take 

Witch-hazel    4  ounces 

Camphor,  sp.  of   2  ounces 

Opium,  tincture  of  2  ounces. 

Zinc  Sulphate. — Is  a  tonic  in  dram  doses,  but  not  so  good  as 
iron  sulphate,  or  copper  sulphate.  Used  principally,  externally, 
as  a  white  lotion.  (See  lead  acetate.) 

Zinc  Oxide. — Is  useful  to  dust  on  indolent  sores  ;  also  dusted  on 
itching  conditions  of  the  skin,  such  as  eczema.  Useful  in  scratches 
as  an  ointment,  prepared  of 

Zinc  oxide   I  part 

Cosmoline    6  parts. 


3O2  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Zinc  Chloride. — Antiseptic  and  astringent ;  an  irritant  corrosive 
poison,  caustic  when  applied  to  the  skin.  In  a  solution  of  i  to  500, 
or  i  to  1000  of  water,  good  for  foul  wounds.  If  used  carefully, 
good  for  excessive  granulations  or  proud  flesh. 

Hypodermic  Tablets. — Atropine,  cocaine,  digitaline,  ergotine, 
eserine,  morphine,  pilocarpine,  and  strychnine  are  active  poisons 
and  should  be  administered  only  by  a  veterinarian. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  useful  prescriptions  which  may 
be  prepared  with  medicines  from  the  supply  table : 

ANTISEPTIC  PRESCRIPTIONS  FOR  WOUNDS. 

Creolin   i  part 

Water    40  parts 

or 

Carbolic   Acid    i  part 

Water     30  .parts 

or 

Boracic  Acid    i  part 

Water     20  parts 

or 

Zinc  Chloride   I  ounce 

Water    I  quart. 

or 
Salicylic    Acid    dusted  on  the  parts 

or 
lodoform    dusted  on  the  parts 

or 

Boracic    Acid dusted  on  the  parts. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury  i  to  1000. 

OINTMENTS  FOR  WOUNDS. 

Zinc,  Oxide  of  i  part 

Cosmoline     6  parts. 

or 

lodoform    i  part 

Cosmoline     6  parts. 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  303 

or 

Boracic   Acid    I  part 

Cosmoline     6  parts. 

or 

Carbolic   Acid    I  part 

Cosmoline    6  parts 

or 

Carbolic   Acid    i  part 

Glycerine    4  to  6  parts. 

"WHITE  LOTION."    (Excellent.) 

Sulphate  of  Zinc   I  ounce 

Acetate  of  Lead    I  ounce 

Water    I  quart. 

A  dram  of  Carbolic  Acid  added  to  this,  increases  its  antiseptic  proper- 
ties. 

BLISTERS,    OR    COUNTER-IRRITANTS. 

Cantharides     i  dram 

Mercury    biniodide     i  dram 

Cosmoline,  or  Lanolin  8  drams 

or 

Cantharides,  powdered    i  dram 

Cosmoline    6  drams 

or 

Iodide  of  Potassium   i  dram 

Iodine,  crystals i  dram 

rubbed  together  in  a  mortar,  then  add  6  or  8  drams  of  Cosmoline.     This 

makes    an    excellent    absorbent    ointment. 

PURGATIVES  AND  LAXATIVES. 

Aloes,   Barbadoes    6  drams 

Calomel    J/2  to  i  dram 

Ginger    2  drams. 

Mixed  with  sufficient  quantity  of  glycerine  makes  a  good  ball. 

or 

Aloes,   Barbadoes    6  drams 

Ginger    2  drams 

made  into  a  ball,  or  given  dissolved  in  one  pint  of  water. 


304  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

or 

Linseed    Oil    V*.  to  I  quart 

Ginger 2  drams 

Nux  Vomica    i  dram 

given  as  a  drench. 

DIURETICS 

Nitrate  of  Potash   l/2  to  i  ounce 

or 

Nitrate  of  Potash   4  drams 

Gentian,  powdered    : 2  to  4  drams 

or 

Ether  Nitrous    (Sweet  sp.   of  Niter) i  ounce 

Belladonna,  fluid  ex i  dram 

diluted  in  i  pint  of  water,  and  given  as  a  drench. 

FOUNDER  POWDER. 

Nitrate  of  Potash 3  to  4  ounces 

Gentian    4  drams. 

TONIC    POWDERS. 

Nux  Vomica,  powdered  i  dram 

Sulphate  of  Iron    i  dram 

Fenugreek     y2  dram 

or 

Sulphate  of  Iron    i  dram 

Gentian,    powdered    2  drams 

or 

Sulphate  of  Iron i  dram 

Soda  Bicarbonate 4  drams 

or 

Sulphate  of  Iron    i  dram 

Arsenic     3  grains 

Fenugreek     y2  dram 

or 

Gentian 2  drams 

Ginger    2  drams 

Fenugreek    y2  dram 


VETERINARY    SUPPLIES    AND    PRESCRIPTIONS  305 

SPASMODIC  COLIC  MIXTURE. 

Nitrous  Ether   i  to  2  ounces 

.Cannabis  Indica   ^  to  ^  ounce 

Ginger,   powdered    2  drams. 

FLATULENT  COLIC  MIXTURE. 

Ether,  Sulphuric   I  ounce 

Ammonia,  Aro.  Sp.  of  2  ounces 

Cannabis  Indica   l/&  to  l/2  ounce 

Ginger    2  drams. 

When  Cannabis  Indica  is  not  at  hand  one  ounce  of  tincture  of  opium 
may  be  substituted  in  either  of  the  above  colic  mixtures. 

DIARRHOEA  MIXTURE. 

Opium,  powdered  i  dram 

Pepper,  Cayenne  i  dram 

Tannic   Acid    i  to  2  drams. 

HOOF  OINTMENT. 

Cosmoline   4  ounces 

Turpentine     i  ounce 

Charcoal    i  ounce. 

LINIMENTS. 

ANODYNE   LINIMENT. 

Witch-hazel    2  ounces. 

Camphor,  Sp.  of  2  ounces 

Opium,  Tincture  of 2  ounces. 

STIMULATING  LINIMENT. 

Turpentine    2  ounces. 

Ammonia,  Water  of   2  ounces 

Oil,  Linseeed    4  ounces. 

or 

Ammonia,  Water  of    i  part 

Olive   Oil    2  parts. 

2O 


3O6  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

CAMPHOR    LINIMENT. 

Camphor,  Sp.  of   2  ounces 

Ammonia,  Water  of   2  ounces 

Turpentine   il/2  ounces 

Water    I  pint. 

SOAP  LINIMENT. 

Castile  Soap,  6  ounces  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  macerated  with  six 
fluid  ounces  of  dilute  liquor  Ammonia  and  one  pint  each  of  Alcohol  and 
Lilnseed  Oil ;  add  2  or  3  ounces  of  Camphor. 

COOLING    LOTION. 

Nitrate  of  Potash   4  ounces 

Ammmonia,  Chloride  of  4  ounces 

Water    i  quart. 

FOR    REDUCING    FEVER. 

Acetanilid    I  to  4  drams 

or 

Quinine    2  drams 

Acetanilid 2  drams 

or 

Nitrate  of  Potash   l/2  ounce  doses 

3  times  daily. 


DISEASES  AND  INJURIES. 
CHAPTER   XIV. 

Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System:  Common  Cold;  Pneumonia;  Sore 
Throat;  Strangles. — Diseases  of  the  Digestive  and  Urinary  Systems: 
Colic,  Spasmodic;  Colic,  Flatulent;  Constipation;  Diarrhoea;  Indiges- 
tion, Chronic;  Profuse  Urination;  Retention  of  Urine. — Miscel- 
laneous Diseases:  Glanders;  Influenza;  Lampas ;  Lockjaw;  Lymphan- 
gitis, Ulcerative;  Sun-Stroke;  Heat-Stroke;  Thumps;  Surra. — Dis- 
eases of  the  Eye  and  Skin :  Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Eye ;  Laceration  of 
the  Eye-lid ;  Mange ;  Scratches. — Diseases  of  the  Legs  and  Feet : 
Broken  Knees;  Calking;  Canker;  Capped  Hock;  Contracted  Heels; 
Corns;  Curb;  Interfering;  Laminitis  (founder);  Navicular  Disease; 
Pricking  of  Foot;  Punctures  of  Frog;  Quittor;  Ring  Bone;  Sand 
Cracks;  Seedy  Toe;  Side  Bones;  Spavins;  Speedy  Cut;  Splint; 
Swelled  Legs;  Thorough  Pin;  Thrush;  Windgalls. — Bruises,  Wounds 
and  Sprains:  Fistulous  Withers;  Poll  Evil;  Sore  Back;  Wounds; 
Flesh,  Gunshot,  Incised,  Lacerated,  Punctured.  Sprains. 

COMMON  COLD. — This  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  which  lines  the  nostrils.  It  is  the  same  affection  as 
cold  in  the  head  in  the  human  subject.  If  neglected  the  disease 
may  become  chronic,  and  is  then  known  as  nasal  gleet. 

Symptoms. — A  snorting  cough,  loss  of  appetite,  dullness  of  the 
eye,  rough  coat,  redness  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
nostrils,  followed  by  a  thin  discharge,  gradually  becoming  thicker 
and  more  profuse,  characterize  this  disease.  Sometimes  a  light 
fever  exists,  the  bowels  are  more  or  less  constipated,  and  the 
throat  becomes  sore ;  the  glands  under  the  jaw  may  become  in- 
flamed. The  two  forms  are  technically  called  acute  and  chronic 
nasal  catarrh. 


3O8  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Treatment. — Put  the  animal  in  a  loose  box,  with  plenty  of  fresh 
air  without  draughts.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  cover  with  blankets. 
Give  plenty  of  water,  and  feed  on  bran  mashes  and  hay.  If  the 
running  at  the  nose  be  considerable,  and  the  cough  troublesome, 
relief  may  be  given  by  steaming  the  head  frequently.  This  is 
accomplished  by  holding  the  head  over  a  pail  of  hot  water  to 
which  one  or  two  ounces  of  creolin  or  carbolic  acid  have  been 
added  and  then  stirring  gently  with  a  whisp  of  hay.  In  mild 
cases  no  other  treatment  is  necessary. 

The  steaming  may  be  done  over  a  nose  bag  or  gunny  sack  into 
which  some  chopped  hay  or  sawdust  has  been  placed,  over  which 
hot  water  is  poured.  If  the  patient  becomes  feverish,  give  a  dose 
of  nitrate  of  potassa,  one  to  two  drams,  daily  for  two  or  three 
days.  If  constipated  use  an  injection  of  warm  water.  In  all  dis- 
eases of  the  respiratory  organs,  active  purgative  medicine  should 
be  avoided. 

In  cases  attended  by  sore  throat,  which  is  indicated  by  difficulty 
in  swallowing,  give  nitrate  or  chlorate  of  potassium  in  one-dram 
doses,  in  half  a  bucket  of  drinking  water,  three  times  daily.  A 
liniment  composed  of  two  parts  linseed  oil,  one  part  turpentine 
and  one  part  solution  of  ammonia,  well  shaken,  should  be  applied 
to  the  outside  of  the  throat  and  well  rubbed  in. 

PNEUMONIA,  OR  LUNG  FEVER. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
lung  structure. 

Symptoms. — The  attack,  at  times,  comes  on  imperceptibly,  and 
again  it  appears  suddenly  without  any  premonitory  symptoms. 
The  attack  is  generally  ushered  in  by  sudden  fits  of  shivering, 
followed  by  coldness  of  the  ears  and  extremities,  and  other  usual 
signs  of  inflammation,  and  a  staring  coat.  The  coldness  of  the 
extremities  is  a  marked  sign  throughout  the  disease.  The  horse 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  309 

is  evidently  uneasy,  and  turns  his  head  frequently  around  to  his 
chest.  The  pulse  is  accelerated,  and  generally  averages  about 
eighty  beats  to  the  minute.  The  temperature  in  the  early  stage 
will  be  103°  to  106°  F.  The  respiration  becomes  disturbed  as 
soon  as  the  disease  is  established.  The  nasal  linings  are  paler 
than  usual,  but  as  the  disease  progresses  they  become  purplish, 
and  then  of  a  leaden  hue.  The  horse  will  stand  persistently  with 
his  fore  legs  wide  apart,  and  his  elbows  out,  to  afford  greater  ex- 
pansion to  his  chest.  Horses  affected  with  this  disease  never  lie 
down  except  for  a  moment  at  a  time,  until  extreme  exhaustion 
comes  upon  them,  when  death  from  suffocation  rapidly  ensues. 

A  cough  may  or  may  not  be  present.  If  it  accompany  the  dis- 
ease it  is  sharp  at  first,  but  as  the  attack  progresses  it  becomes 
dry  and  of  a  dull  character.  The  disease  may  attack  only  one 
lung,  or  both.  If,  during  the  early  stage,  the  ear  be  applied  to 
the  chest,  a  confused,  humming  noise,  accompanied  with  a  harsh, 
dry  murmur,  instead  of  the  gentle,  respiratory  sound  peculiar  to 
health,  will  be  heard.  With  increase  of  the  disease  the  breathing 
becomes  quicker  and  more  labored.  The  fever  lasts  from  five 
to  ten  days.  Convalescence  is  indicated  by  the  return  of  the  pulse 
to  something  like  its  normal  condition,  restoration  of  warmth  in 
the  extremities,  a  moist  state  of  the  nostrils,  and  a  disposition  to 
lie  down  for  rest. 

Treatment. — Laxative  food,  entire  rest,  blankets,  and  flannel 
bandages  should  be  provided  at  once;  plenty  of  fresh  air  in  the 
box  stall,  but  no  draughts.  The  condition  of  the  animal  has  much 
to  do  with  the  treatment  accorded.  If  the  animal  is  in  good  condi- 
tion, and  the  attack  arises  from  some  well-marked  cause,  give 
ten  to  fifteen  drops  fluid  extract  of  aconite  every  four  hours  in 
first  stages,  and  as  much  nitrate  of  potassa,  in  two-dram  doses. 


3IO  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

as  the  animal  will  take  in  his  drinking  water.  Blankets  or  cloths 
wrung  out  in  hot  water  should  be  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  chest 
and  covered  over  with  dry  cloths  or  rubber  cloth.  This  should  be 
continued  for  some  time,  and  when  stopped  the  skin  should  be 
dried  thoroughly,  and  liniment  of  linseed  oil  and  ammonia  gently 
rubbed  in,  and  this  covered  with  dry  cloths. 

When  the  crisis  is  reached,  or  the  febrile  stage  checked  some- 
what, tonics  and  stimulants  are  used.  Whisky  or  pure  alcohol,  in 
one  ounce  doses,  well  diluted  with  water,  may  be  given,  and  in 
many  cases  carbonate  of  ammonia,  in  two-dram  doses,  in  the  form 
of  a  ball,  may  be  advantageously  used.  If  the  animal  is  distressed 
with  a  cough,  a  dram  each  of  gum  camphor  and  extract  of  bella- 
donna, should  be  given  four  or  five  times  a  day.  If  the  attack 
is  the  sequel  of  influenza  or  catarrh,  or  occurs  in  a  horse  of  low 
vitality,  aconite  should  not  be  used,  but  the  tonics  and  stimulants 
at  once  resorted  to.  When  the  animal  begins  to  convalesce,  en- 
courage his  appetite  with  such  stimulating  food  as  can  be  pro- 
cured, but  no  corn  should  be  given. 

SORE  THROAT. — This  is  an  affection  arising  from  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  larynx  (Laryngitis)  or  Pharynx 
(Pharyngitis).  Usually  both  parts  are  affected  at  the  same  time. 
The  common  causes  are  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  sudden 
changes  of  temperature,  allowing  a  sweating  horse  to  stand  in 
a  draught,  bruises  external  or  internal,  and  by  infection. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite,  cough,  difficulty  in  swallowing, 
with  slobbering  from  the  mouth,  and  sometimes  discharging  water 
and  food  from  the  nostrils.  Increase  of  temperature  and  pulse. 

Treatment. — Place  the  animal  in  a  box  stall,  well  ventilated  but 
free  from  draughts.  Give  green  food  and  bran  mash.  Fresh 
water  within  reach  at  all  times.  If  improvement  justifies,  substi- 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  311 

tute  steamed  oats  for  the  mash.  The  nostrils  and  lips  should  be 
sponged  clean  at  frequent  intervals.  If  the  throat  is  hot  and 
tender,  cold  applications  should  be  used.  If  the  formation  of  an 
abscess  is  indicated,  apply  poultices  to  bring  it  to  a  head.  Great 
care  is  necessary  in  making  an  opening  for  the  expulsion  of  pus ; 
knife  should  be  used  only  to  make  opening  in  skin.  As  the  sore 
throat  improves  the  attendant  fever  will  disappear ;  if,  however, 
the  fever  be  high,  use  cold  water  injections  in  the  rectum.  Never 
drench  a  horse  suffering  with  a  sore  throat. 

STRANGLES. — This  is  an  infectious  disease,  usually  attended 
with  an  eruptive  fever,  to  which  young  horses  are  especially  sub- 
ject. Strangles,  distemper  and  shipping  fever  are  one  and  the 
same  disease.  It  usually  attacks  young  horses  when  first  removed 
from  farms  to  large  stables.  Strangles  is  usually  acquired  by 
direct  contact  with  an  animal  suffering  with  the  disease  or  through 
contact  with  the  discharge  from  an  infected  animal.  The  disease 
is  very  apt  to  develop  in  four  and  five  year  old  remounts  but  this 
is  not  an  unmixed  evil  if  they  are  in  garrison  where  they  can  be 
given  proper  care,  for  horses  are  immune  after  one  infection. 

Symptoms. — The  horse  appears  sluggish,  looks  sick  and  is  off 
his  feed.  Fever  exists,  the  temperature  rising  as  high  as  105° 
and  1 06°  ;  increase  in  the  pulse  takes  place.  Thirst  increases  and 
owing  to  sore  throat  there  is  much  slobbering  in  drinking.  The 
coat  becomes  rough.  At  the  end  of  a  couple  of  days  a  cough 
begins  and  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  takes  place,  at  first 
watery,  but  later  of  a  greenish  yellow  color  and  sticky.  The  glands 
under  the  jaw,  in  the  intermaxillary  space,  become  swollen. 
When  the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  has  fully  developed,  the 
fever  decreases.  Sometimes  the  disease  is  accompanied  with  deep 
seated  abscesses  which  may  prove  fatal. 


312  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Treatment. — When  the  tumor  forms  regularly  in  the  sub- 
maxillary  space,  and  is  of  the  ordinary  size,  the  abscess  generally 
comes  to  maturity  without  much  trouble  or  inconvenience.  If, 
however,  it  is  situated  high  up  towards  the  parotid  glands,  the 
distress  in  the  breathing  will  often  be  very  great,  and  the  fever 
run  high.  The  great  object  is  to  assist  nature  to  develop  the 
eruption  fully  and  quickly,  as  strangles  runs  a  specific  course ; 
hence,  good  nursing  and  soft  food,  on  account  of  the  attending 
sore  throat,  are  the  principal  things.  The  appetite  must  be 
watched,  and  tempted  with  grass,  if  to  be  had.  Sick  animals  soon 
tire  of  bran  mash,  so  that  linseed  meal  should  be  on  hand  to  add 
to  the  mash  or  make  a  separate  gruel.  Cut  hay,  steamed,  and  oats 
softened  with  boiling  water  may  be  given  as  soon  as  the  animal 
can  eat.  Blankets  and  leg  bandages  should  be  used,  and  if  the 
legs  are  cold  they  should  be  hand  rubbed.  No  purgative  medicine 
should  be  given. 

During  the  period  when  the  animal  is  coughing  and  the  dis- 
charge is  sticky,  steaming  will  give  some  relief  by  allaying  in- 
flammation. A  little  tar  added  to  the  hot  water  for  steaming  is 
soothing.  The  swollen  glands  should  be  bathed  with  warm  water 
and  flaxseed  poultices.  Blisters  and  irritating  liniments  should 
not  be  applied  to  the  throat. 

As  soon  as  the  tumor  has  headed  it  should  be  freely  opened,  for 
if  opened  at  a  favorable  point  the  incision  is  not  so  apt  to  leave 
a  blemish  as  a  ragged  natural  opening.  The  abscess  must  be  kept 
open,  if  necessary,  by  a  piece  of  tow,  and  warm  water  should  be 
occasionally  injected  into  it. 

The  tumor  does  not  always  form  favorably,  but  sometimes 
comes  on  the  shoulders  or  front  of  the  chest,  and  occasionally  on 
some  of  the  internal  glandular  structures. 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  313 

SPASMODIC  COLIC. — This  is  a  griping  or  spasmodic  contraction 
of  the  muscular  coat  of  any  part  of  the  intestines.  The  usual  seat 
of  trouble  is  the  small  intestine,  although  impaction  of  food  in 
the  large  intestine  may  cause  it.  It  is  always  accompanied  by 
pain  of  an  intermittent  character. 

Symptoms. — The  early  sign  of  colic  is  sudden  pain  in  the 
region  of  the  intestines,  indicated  by  the  horse  looking  anxiously 
around  at  his  flanks.  As  the  pain  increases,  the  animal  becomes 
more  restless ;  paws ;  kicks  at  his  belly ;  lies  down  and  gets  up 
frequently;  wants  to  roll  over  when  down.  After  a  time  the 
spasm  passes  away,  to  return  again  after  a  brief  interval  with 
the  same  signs. 

During  the  paroxysm  of  pain  the  pulse  is  much  quickened  and 
the  breathing  accelerated ;  during  the  intervals  they  return  to  the 
normal.  During  the  attack  there  may  frequently  be  a  passage 
of  hard,  angular  dung  pellets.  Ineffectual  attempts  to  pass  urine 
are  frequently  made. 

Favorable  indications  are  an  increase  in  the  intervals  of  time 
between  attacks,  and  each  attack  becoming  slighter  than  the  pre- 
ceding one.  If  the  animal  passes  wind  and  soft  dung,  it  is  a  favor- 
able sign.  The  increase  or  decrease  of  the  attack  is  also  indi- 
cated by  the  tenseness  of  the  belly,  or  the  reverse.  The  symptoms 
are  only  those  of  pain,  no  inflammation  being  present,  and  the 
extremities  and  skin  continuing  normal. 

Treatment. — The  spasms  being  caused  by  an  irritant  of  some 
sort  in  the  bowels,  the  treatment  is  directed  to  removing  this  as 
soon  as  possible.  For  this  purpose  administer  a  drench  of  one 
pint  of  raw  linseed  oil,  one  dram  cannabis  indica  and  one  dram 
nitrous  ether.  If  a  light  case,  where  overloading  of  the  stomach 
does  not  exist,  give  an  antispasmodic  compound — a  minimum 


314  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

dose — of  one  ounce  of  sulphuric  ether,  one  ounce  of  tincture  of 
opium,  and  one  dram  of  powdered  ginger,  in  cold  water. 

There  are  many  other  simple  remedies  useful  in  relieving  this 
trouble.  An  injection  of  warm  water  may  be  used  with  the  other 
remedies.  Rubbing  the  belly  and  legs  gives  comfort,  but  some 
horses  are  very  violent,  and  must  be  handled  with  care.  A  favor- 
able sign  of  relief  is  the  free  passage  of  urine.  The  horse  should 
be  watched  for  several  hours  after  the  attack  has  passed. 

FLATULENT  COLIC. — This  is  more  to  be  dreaded  than  the 
spasmodic  colic.  It  is  apt  to  be  chronic,  resulting  at  times  from 
imperfect  digestion. 

Symptoms. — There  is  distention  of  the  belly,  which  is  resonant 
on  percussion.  The  expression  of  pain  is  not  so  acute  as  in  spas- 
modic colic,  but  more  constant ;  there  is  more  or  less  delirium ; 
the  animal  is  unsteady  upon  his  feet,  and  his  extremities  are 
cold. 

Treatment. — Give  as  a  drench  two  ounces  of  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  one  or  two  ounces  of  sulphuric  ether,  and  one  to  two 
ounces  of  tincture  of  opium,  dissolved  in  cold  water.  Also  use 
oil  and  injections,  as  in  spasmodic  colic. 

In  both  spasmodic  and  flatulent  colic,  if  relief  is  not  obtained, 
the  dose  should  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  an  hour. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  puncture  the  animal  on 
the  right  side,  in  the  triangular  space  bounded  by  the  vertebrae, 
the  hip  bone  and  the  last  rib;  puncture  with  a  trocar,  and  leave 
the  canula  in  the  opening  temporarily.  The  trocar  should  be 
directed  downward  and  inward.  This  should  be  done  by  a 
veterinarian  or  specially  trained  farrier. 

CONSTIPATION. — This  exists  when  the  faeces  are  wholly  re- 
tained, or  are  scanty,  hard  and  small. 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  315 

Symptoms. — When  of  long  standing  the  coat  is  rough  and 
staring.  There  is  a  slight  swelling  of  the  extremities,  sometimes, 
a  distended  condition  of  the  belly,  and  loss  of  appetite.  In  all 
cases  the  animal  strains  in  voiding  the  faeces,  which  are  usually, 
though  not  always  small,  hard  and  dry.  There  is  not  usually 
any  sign  of  pain. 

Treatment. — In  mild  or  recent  cases  the  diet  should  be  laxative, 
and  as  varied  as  convenient.  An  injection  of  tepid  water  and 
sweet  oil  twice  a  day  for  a  few  days  will  be  useful.  In  prolonged 
cases  a  good  purgative  may  be  necessary. 

DIARRHOEA. — This  is  a  scouring  of  the  bowels,  resulting  from 
a  natural  effort  to  expel  some  irritating  substance,  or  from  change 
from  dry  forage  to  green  grass.  If  unchecked  the  animal  loses 
flesh  rapidly  at  times. 

Treatment. — Give  a  laxative  of  one-half  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil. 
Give  an  infusion  of  gentian,  one  ounce,  and  one  to  two  ounces  of 
tincture  of  opium ;  feed  dry  food. 

Other  remedies  recommended  are  tannic  acid,  prepared  chalk, 
or  powdered  opium. 

CHRONIC  INDIGESTION. — This  is  a  catarrh  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels  arising  from  a  variety  of  causes,  as  feeding  when  the 
animal  is  exhausted;  irregularity  in  feeding  and  watering;  im- 
perfect mastication ;  irregularities  of  the  teeth  and  poor  or  unripe 
food. 

Symptoms. — Appetite  diminished  and  depraved;  constipation 
alternating  with  looseness  of  the  bowels ;  passage  of  whole  grain, 
impacted  masses  of  hay  and  much  wind.  Animal  loses  flesh  and 
skin  appears  hard,  dry  and  tight  (hidebound).  Frequent  yawn- 
ing and  turning  outward  the  upper  lip.  Frequently  attended 
with  colicky  pains. 


3l6  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Treatment. — Examine  the  teeth  and  correct  any  undue  sharp- 
ness or  irregularity,  or  remove  if  decayed.  Good  water  and  food, 
with  regularity ;  if  horse  bolts  his  food,  spread  it  out  to  make 
him  eat  slow.  Regular  exercise.  To  counteract  excessive  gas, 
give  one  dram  of  bicarbonate  soda  twice  a  day  or  one  heaping 
tablespoonful  of  the  soda,  powdered  ginger  and  powdered  gentian, 
mixed,  twice  a  day  before  feeding.  The  mixture  should  be  dis- 
solved in  half  a  pint  of  water  and  given  as  a  drench. 

PROFUSE  URINATION. — This  disease,  as  its  name  indicates,  is 
characterized  by  great  increase  and  peculiar  alteration  of  the 
urine,  and  the  body  becomes  emaciated.  The  presence  in  the  sys- 
tem of  the  poison  of  glanders,  indigestion,  or  feeding  on  musty 
hay  or  oats,  or  boiled  grain,  all  tend  to  produce  this  condition. 

Symptoms. — Excessive  thirst  and  unusual  urination,  accom- 
panied by  depraved  appetite,  characterize  the  disease.  The  mucous 
membranes  are  pale  and  dirty-colored,  the  breath  offensive,  and 
the  pulse  thin  and  weak.  A  rough  coat  and  a  disposition  to  per- 
spire on  slight  exertion,  are  accompanying  symptoms. 

Treatment. — The  food  should  be  changed,  grass  being  given, 
if  procurable.  If  the  water  is  hard,  it  should  be  boiled.  If  the 
horse  can  be  induced  to  drink  linseed  tea,  he  should  have  it  freely. 
As  great  prostration  accompanies  this  disease,  a  liberal  diet  should 
be  allowed,  preferably  of  a  laxative  nature. 

RETENTION  OF  URINE. — Anything  which  may  impede  the  flow 
of  urine,  such  as  a  spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  cancer  of 
the  penis,  or  dirt  in  the  sheath,  may  cause  the  condition.  It  may 
result  from  inability  of  the  animal  to  rise  to  its  feet  on  account  of 
some  other  trouble. 

Symptoms. — These  are  frequent  and  ineffectual  attempts  to 
urinate,  although  the  animal  strains  and  groans  with  his  efforts. 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  317 

Treatment.— Apply  hot  cloths  to  the  loins  and  hand  rub  the 
belly ;  put  on  blankets  and  shake  up  the  bedding,  which  sometimes 
causes  so  much  desire  to  urinate  that  the  horse  overcomes  his 
difficulty.  If  these  fail,  and  a  catheter  is  at  hand,  relieve  the 
bladder  by  mechanical  means. 

GLANDERS. — This  is  a  contagious,  malignant  and  fatal  disease, 
caused  by  a  specific  virus  or  bacilli  which  gains  entrance  to  the 
system  most  easily  when  the  animal  is  debilitated.  Glanders  and 
Farcy  are  regarded  as  one  and  the  same  disease,  the  former  term 
being  applied  when  the  disease  manifests  itself  in  the  internal 
organs,  especially  in  the  nostrils,  lungs  and  air  tubes,  and  the 
latter  when  the  principal  manifestation  is  an  outbreak  of  the 
lesions  on  the  exterior  or  skin  of  the  animal.  Glanders  is  a  consti- 
tutional disease  communicable  to  man. 

Transmission  of  the  disease  occurs  by  direct  contact  of  the 
discharges  of  the  glandered  animal,  with  the  tissues  of  a  sound 
one ;  by  swallowing  the  virus  when  mixed  with  food  or  inhaling 
it  when  dried  and  floating  in  the  air ;  or  by  other  means  in  which 
it  may  be  introduced.  Glanders  may  affect  a  horse  for  a  long 
period  in  a  latent  from  without  being  detected.  It  is  particularly 
insidious  in  this  form  because  through  the  use  of  watering  troughs 
and  buckets,  feed  boxes,  bridles,  harness,  curry  combs  and  other 
articles  it  may  be  transmitted  to  many  animals  before  its  true 
source  is  located.  While  the  discharge  from  a  case  of  chronic 
glanders  may  not  contain  so  many  active  bacilli  as  that  from  a 
case  of  acute  glanders,  if  it  infects  an  animal,  it  will  produce  the 
same  disease  as  the  latter.  The  infected  case  may  assume  an  acute 
or  chronic  form,  according  to  the  susceptibility  of  the  animal  in- 
fected ;  the  result  does  not  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  dis- 
ease from  which  the  virus  was  derived.  Mules  are  more  apt  than 


3l8  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

horses  to  develop  the  acute  form  of  glanders.  With  good  care, 
good  food  and  comfortable  surroundings,  with  little  work,  an 
animal  affected  with  glanders  may  live  for  many  months  and  per- 
haps for  years.  With  a  few  days  hard  work,  deprivation  of  food 
and  exposure  to  bad  weather,  the  latent  seeds  of  the  disease  will 
usually  break  out  and  develop  in  an  acute  form. 

Symptoms. — In  chronic  glanders  the  symptoms  include  bleeding 
from  the  nostrils  without  apparent  cause ;  a  chronic  cough  and 
swelling  of  a  hind  leg  which  may  extend  from  the  pastern  up  to 
the  stifle.  The  swelling  is  hot  and  painful  to  the  touch  and  renders 
the  animal  stiff  and  lame.  Nodules  from  the  size  of  a  shot  to  that 
of  a  small  pea  form  in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  respiratory 
tract.  They  may  be  just  inside  the  nostrils  or  on  the  septum 
which  divides  one  nasal  cavity  from  the  other,  where  they  may  be 
easily  detected.  They  may  also  form  higher  up  in  the  nasal  cavity, 
in  the  larynx,  the  wind  pipe  or  even  in  the  lungs.  The  nodules 
are  at  first  red  and  hard  but  later  they  soften  and  become  yellow ; 
they  soon  break  resulting  in  small  ulcers  with  ragged  edges  known 
as  chancres.  The  eruption  of  the  ulcers  and  the  accompanying 
discharge,  which  is  of  a  gluey  nature  sometimes  tinged  with  blood, 
soon  cause  an  irritation  of  the  neighboring  lymphatics.  The 
glands  on  the  inside  of  the  jaws  become  hard  and  nodulated,  a 
condition  not  easily  confounded  with  the  puffy  swollen  glands  and 
tissues  found  in  strangles. 

On  healing,  the  chancres  on  the  mucous  membranes  leave  small, 
whitish  pit  like  scars,  which  remain  for  an  indefinite  time.  In 
chronic  glanders  the  animal  looses  flesh  and  becomes  hidebound ; 
the  skin  becomes  dry,  the  hair  stands  on  end  and  a  generally  de- 
praved appearance  results.  There  is  rarely  any  great  amount  of 
fever. 


DISEASES   AND    INJURIES  319 

Chronic  farcy  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  little  nodes, 
varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  buckshot  to  that  of  a  walnut,  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  skin  and  commonly  known  as  farcy 
"  buds."  They  are  hot,  sensitive  to  the  touch  and  soon  become 
soft  and  degenerate  into  ulcers.  The  discharge  accumulates  on 
the  hairs  and  forms  scabs  which  gradually  loosen  and  fall  off. 

The  farcy  buds  occur  most  frequently  on  the  sides  of  the  lips, 
the  neck,  the  lower  part  of  the  shoulders,  the  inside  of  the  thighs 
and  the  outside  of  the  legs.  They  may,  however,  occur  on  any 
part  of  the  body.  The  lymphatic  vessels  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
ulcers  may  become  swollen  and  indurated,  making  cord  like  ridges 
under  the  skin.  They  may  finally  disappear  but  often  form 
elongated,  irregular  ulcers.  The  buds,  cords,  ulcers  and  peculiar 
discharge  are  the  essential  symptoms  in  a  diagnosis  of  farcy. 

Acute  glanders  is  characterized  by  the  same  symptoms  as 
chronic  glanders  and  farcy  but  in  a  more  acute  and  aggravated 
form.  The  temperature  rises  as  high  as  105°  and  the  contagion 
is  in  its  most  virulent  form.  There  is  a  rapid  outbreak  of  nodules 
in  the  respiratory  tract  which  degenerate  quickly  into  ulcers  with 
much  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  There  is  a  cough  of  more  or 
less  severity.  Small  swellings  or  "  buds,"  which  become  rapidly 
filled  with  pus,  occur  over  the  surface  of  the  body  and  break  into 
ulcers.  The  eruption  is  generally  preceded  by  bleeding  from  the 
nostrils,  swelling  of  one  of  the  hind  legs  and  in  case  of  a  stallion, 
swelling  of  the  testicles.  Indurated  cords  and  enlargement  of  the 
lymphatics  occur.  As  the  symptoms  become  more  marked  the 
animal  has  difficulty  in  breathing,  the  flanks  heave,  and  the  pulse 
becomes  rapid ;  the  animal  fails  rapidly  and  death  ensues. 

Treatment. — An  animal  in  which  glanders  or  farcy  is  sus- 
pected should  be  at  once  isolated,  and  when  the  disease  is  clearly 


32O  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

manifested  there  should  be  no  hesitation  about  destroying  the 
animal,  since  no  known  methods  of  treatment  avail  to  do  more 
than  prolong  for  a  time  an  unhealthy  existence.  The  difficulty 
of  detection  of  this  disease  in  its  incipiency  is  so  great  and  the 
results  of  an  outbreak  so  much  to  be  feared  that  the  mallein  test 
should  be  made  on  every. animal  before  loading  for  transportation 
at  sea. 

The  test  consists  in  the  injection,  beneath  the  skin,  of  mallein, 
a  sterilized  extract  from  a  culture  of  glanders  bacilli.  The  char- 
acter of  reaction  affords  a  means  of  determining  the  condition  of 
the  animal.  Before  applying '  the  test  the  temperature  of  the 
animal  should  be  taken,  and  if  not  normal  the  cause  of  the  varia- 
tion should  be  determined. 

The  side  of  the  neck  is  usually  chosen  as  the  site  of  the  in- 
jection. The  parts  near  the  point  selected  should  be  carefully 
shaved  and  disinfected  with  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
or  other  antiseptic.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  sterilize  the 
syringe  before  and  after  using.  A  cubic  centimeter  of  mallein 
is  used  for  each  injection. 

Beginning  five  or  six  hours  after  the  inoculation  the  temperature 
should  be  taken  at  intervals  of  one  hour  for  a  period  of  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  The  reaction,  or  symptoms  shown 
by  the  glandered  horse,  consists  in  a  rise  of  temperture  of  from 
two  to  five  degrees ;  a  large  swelling  at  the  point  of  inoculation, 
which  is  extremely  sensitive  to  the  touch ;  a  general  appearance 
of  illness,  and  finally  a  stiffness  in  the  muscles  and  joints.  The 
existence  of  these  symptoms  may  be  accepted  as  good  evidence 
of  the  presence  of  glanders.  In  case  of  a  healthy  animal  or  one 
free  from  glanders,  there  may  be  a  small  swelling,  at  the  point 
of  inoculation,  which  disappears  in  about  twenty-four  hours,  and 


DISEASES   AND   INJURIES  321 

a  rise  of  about  one  degree  of  temperature,  but  no  appreciable 
constitutional  disturbance.* 

INFLUENZA. — This  is  a  contagious  and  infectious  disease,  ac- 
companied by  fever,  great  depression  and  frequent  inflammatory 
complications.  The  disease  is  very  apt,  under  certain  conditions 
of  the  atmosphere,  to  assume  an  epizootic  form  with  a  tendency 
to  complication  of  special  organs.  Under  various  names,  "  Pink 
eye,"  "  Epizootic,"  etc.,  it  has  ravaged  the  country  at  times.  When 
the  disease  gets  located  in  a  cavalry  command,  the  latter  may  be 
counted  out  of  action  for  some  time. 

*  Glanders  appeared  among  the  horses  of  the  3d  squadron,  I4th  Cavalry, 
comprising  Troops  I,  K,  L,  and  M,  stationed  at  Jolo,  Philippine  Islands. 
The  mallein  test  was  administered  to  all  the  animals,  one  troop  at  a  time, 
and  those  that  reacted  to  the  test  were  isolated  from  the  healthy  animals 
and  given  repeated  injections  of  mallein  until  reaction  ceased.  Animals 
which  developed  no  symptoms  of  glanders  and  gave  no  further  reaction  to 
the  mallein  test  were  returned  to  duty.  The  following  is  a  summary  of 
the  tests  which  began  in  August,  1904 : 

Number  of  cavalry  horses  in  squadron 215 

Proven  infected  by  first  mallein  injection 72 

Proven  infected  by  second  mallein  injection 35 

Proven  infected  by  third  mallein  injection II 

Immediately  after  the  first  injection  the  horses  (72  in  number)  which 
reacted  were  quarantined  in  a  temporary  stable.  The  second  test  was 
applied  four  weeks  after  the  first.  One  horse  developed  glanders  ten  days 
after  the  first  injection,  and  three  after  the  second.  These  four  horses 
were  destroyed.  The  remaining  68  wrere  ultimately  returned  to  duty  in 
their  respective  troops  and  at  the  expiration  of  six  months  continued 
apparently  healthy,  no  new  cases  having  appeared  during  that  time. 

Whether  or  not  the  mallein  test  be  ultimately  proven  to  be  a  cure  for 
glanders,  the  facts  as  set  forth  appear  to  indicate  that  the  disease  in  its 
incipient  stages  may  subsequently  disappear  without  other  treatment  than 
injections  of  mallein. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  the  therapeutic  value  of 
mallein  but  the  veterinary  medical  profession  has  by  no  means  accepted  the 
experiments   so    far   made   as    finally    determining    its    value    except    for 
diagnosis. 
21 


322  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Symptoms. — The  animal  becomes  dejected,  inattentive  to  sur- 
rounding objects  and  stands  with  his  head  down.  A  high  fever 
is  rapidly  developed.  Severe  chills  ensue.  The  stupor  becomes 
more  marked ;  the  eyes  become  puffy  and  swollen  with  excessive 
running  of  tears.  With  any  attempt  at  movement  the  horse  stag- 
gers and  shows  a  want  of  coordination  of  his  limbs.  There  is 
generally  a  loss  of  appetite  and  an  increase  of  thirst.  The  legs, 
sheath  and  belly  become  swollen.  These  conditions  all  remain 
during  the  specific  course  of  the  disease,  which  generally  runs 
from  six  to  ten  days. 

Treatment. — The  aim  should  be  to  support  the  animal  through 
the  disease,  and  enable  nature  to  throw  off  the  morbid  material 
in  the  system.  Exertion  of  any  kind  should  be  prevented.  Good 
nursing,  absolute  quiet,  and  food  mostly  of  a  laxative  character, 
are  prime  requisites.  Water  should  be  kept  where  the  animal 
can  help  itself. 

LAM  PAS. — This  is  an  active  inflammation  and  swelling  of  the 
ridges  of  the  roof  of  the  horse's  mouth.  It  is  a  trifling  ailment. 

Symptoms. — The  soreness  of  the  palate  prevents  the  animal 
from  eating  for  a  few  days,  and  the  inflammation  sometimes 
causes  feverish  symptoms. 

Treatment. — A  few  days  of  feeding  wet  bran  and  other  soft 
food  will  cause  the  inflammation  to  subside.  The  brutal  practice 
of  burning  the  palate  with  a  hot  iron  should  never  be  allowed. 
If  marching  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  up  the  horse's  strength, 
an  early  recovery  may  be  induced  by  scarifying  the  swollen  roof 
of  the  mouth  in  front  of  the  third  ridge  with  a  knife  or  lancet. 

LOCKJAW. — This  is  a  disease  caused  by  a  specific  bacillus  often 
found  in  the  superficial  layer  of  the  soil,  in  manure  and  sometimes 
in  the  dust.  It  appears  to  thrive  on  wounds  from  which  the  air 


DISEASES   AND    INJURIES  323 

is  excluded.  The  disease  frequently  does  not  develop  or  manifest 
itself  until  sometime  after  a  wound  has  healed. 

The  disease  is  most  commonly  induced  by  picking  up  rusty 
nails  or  other  bits  of  iron,  causing  an  injury  to  the  sensitive 
portion  of  the  foot,  but  it  arises  not  infrequently  from  a  punctured 
wound  of  the  back  or  loins.  The  disease  is  very  common  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  arising  usually  from  punctured  wounds  and 
has  been  attended  with  an  almost  total  mortality. 

Symptoms. — The  attack  is  characterized  by  more  or  less  closure 
of  the  jaws ;  sometimes  the  teeth  are  firmly  fixed  together ;  also 
great  difficulty  in  swallowing,  rigidity  of  the  limbs,  and  extreme 
difficulty  in  moving.  The  animal  pokes  out  his  nose  as  if  suffering 
from  sore  throat.  As  the  disease  advances  the  jaws  become  so 
tightly  locked  that  neither  food  nor  medicine  can  be  introduced 
through  them.  The  ears  are  held  erect  and  turned  to  the  front, 
the  eyes  are  retracted,  and  the  haw  partially  protrudes ;  the 
nostrils  are  dilated.  The  animal  spreads  his  legs  wide  apart,  and 
stands  persistently  with  tail  erect.  The  belly  is  tense  and  tucked 
up,  and  the  muscles  everywhere  stand  out  prominent  and  rigid. 
Obstinate  constipation  and  torpidity  of  the  bladder  form  a  marked 
feature  of  the  symptoms,  which,  in  general,  reach  their  height 
in  three  or  four  days. 

Treatment. — The  exciting  cause  should  be  sought  for.  If  it 
is  a  wound  of  the  foot  the  offending  substance  must  be  removed, 
and  the  opening  enlarged  to  give  free  passage  for  the  pus  which 
has  accumulated.  The  hoof  should  be  pared  down  quite  thin 
about  the  hole  to  make  an  easy  exit  for  the  pus,  and  a  flaxseed 
poultice  applied,  to  which  belladonna  is  added. 

As  soon  as  the  attack  is  recognized,  a  purgative  should  be  ad- 
ministered. Solid  extract  of  belladonna  may  be  given  twice  daily ; 


324  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

the  medicine  may  be  placed  in  the  month  and  allowed  to  dissolve 
slowly.  Oatmeal  gruel  in  liquid  form  should  be  left  so  that  the 
horse  can  suck  it  from  a  bucket  without  opening  his  mouth. 
During  convalescence  provide  laxative,  nutritious  food,  and  give 
tonics. 

Perfect  rest  and  quiet  are  necessary ;  the  stable  should  be 
darkened,  and  the  horse  disturbed  as  seldom  as  possible,  even  by 
the  attendant.  A  pail  of  water  should  be  left  within  reach  of  the 
horse  at  all  times. 

ULCERATIVE  LYMPHANGITIS. — This  disease  prevails  in  many 
tropical  countries  under  various  local  names.  It  resembles  true 
farcy  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  frequently  mistaken  for  that 
disease  during  the  early  period  of  American  occupation  in  the 
Philippine  Islands  although  the  mallein  test  failed  to  produce  the 
glanders  reaction.  It  is  caused  by  a  specific  parasite,  the  infection 
being  generally  communicated  through  inoculation  of  a  wound 
or  abrasion  of  the  skin.  The  period  of  incubation  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  two  weeks  to  three  months.  It  is  contagious, 
being  easily  communicated  by  direct  contact  or  through  the  use 
of  harness,  curry  combs,  brushes,  or  rubbing  against  the  sides  of 
stalls  and  hitching  posts.  Whether  the  infection  may,  or  may 
not,  be  carried  by  flies  or  other  insects  has  not  yet  been  established. 
The  disease  is  attended  with  some  losses,  probably  not  exceeding 
ten  per  cent. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  usually  noticed  is  a  small  swell- 
ing from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  hazel  nut,  which  may  appear 
on  any  part  of  the  body  generally  in  the  vicinity  of  a  wound  or 
where  a  wound  has  been,  the  favorite  locations  being  along  the 
sides,  down  the  front  legs,  and  on  the  inside  of  the  hind  legs.  Soon 
more  of  the  enlargements  appear  along  the  course  of  the  lym- 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  325 

phatics.  They  are  hard  to  the  touch  at  first,  but  soon  suppurate,  a 
soft  spot  appearing  in  the  center  of  each  in  from  four  to  five 
days,  and  which,  on  opening,  discharges  a  thick,  creamy  pus.  In 
some  instances  the  abscesses  attain  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  In  the 
early  stage,  there  is  no  impairment  of  appetite,  the  general  health 
is  not  affected,  and  the  animal  is  able  to  continue  his  daily  work. 
If,  at  this  time,  the  disease  is  energetically  combatted,  it  usually 
terminates  with  a  cure  within  from  one  to  three  months. 

There  are  occasionally  refractory  cases  in  which  the  disease 
becomes  general ;  the  animal  is  then  covered  with  a  mass  of  ab- 
scesses ;  one  or  more  of  the  legs  may  swell  to  considerable  size ; 
complications  set  in  and  the  general  health  becomes  impaired  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  animal  dies  from  exhaustion.  In  some 
cases  ulcers  appear  on  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  but  they  do 
not  have  the  pit-like  depressions  which  characterize  the  ulcers  in 
glanders. 

The  diagnosis  of  ulcerative  lymphangitis  differs  from  that  of 
farcy-glanders  in  several  essential  particulars.  The  discharge  in 
the  former  is  thick,  creamy  and  yellow,  whereas  in  true  farcy- 
glanders  it  is  sticky,  bloody  and  yellow.  The  irregularity  of  the 
location  of  the  abscesses  in  ulcerative  lymphangitis  is  marked,  and 
the  individual  ulcers  are  characterized  by  elevation  rather  than 
depression.  There  is  not  much  disturbance  to  the  general  system 
in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  and  it  responds  readily  to  treat- 
ment. American  horses  and  mules  have  responded  to  treatment 
much  more  readily  and  completely  than  native  ponies.  Unlike 
surra,  the  disease  does  not  appear  to  affect  carabaos,  cattle  or 
other  domestic  animals. 

Treatment. — Heroic  treatment  is  imperative  and  consists  in  the 
prompt  opening  of  all  abscesses  as  they  appear,  and  thorough 


326  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

cauterization  to  destroy  the  unhealthy  tissue.  Pure  carbolic  acid, 
powdered  acetate  of  lead  or  other  caustics,  and  as  a  last  resort 
the  hot  iron  may  be  used.  After  five  or  six  days,  and  when  the 
wounds  appear  as  healthy  granulations,  antiseptic  dressings  or 
dusting  powders — iodoform,  boric  acid,  oxide  of  zinc,  etc., — 
should  be  used.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  through  one- 
dram  doses  of  iodide  of  potassium  twice  a  day.  A  cathartic  of 
aloes  should  be  given  at  the  commencement  of  treatment;  a  ball 
composed  of  one  ounce  aloes,  one  dram  calomel,  one-half  dram 
ginger,  and  syrup  in  sufficient  quantity  to  mix,  is  recommended. 

SUNSTROKE. — This  is  a  cerebral  trouble  produced  generally  by 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  falling  upon  the  head,  in  combination 
with  humid  atmosphere. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  stops  suddenly,  drops  his  head,  begins 
to  stagger,  breathes  with  a  loud  noise,  sweat  breaks  out  and  pulse 
becomes  very  slow  and  irregular,  temperature  very  high,  and  often 
the  animal  dies  without  recovering  consciousness. 

Treatment. — Cold  applications  of  water  or  ice  on  the  head  ;  cold 
spray  over  body  with  hose ;  cold  injections  in  rectum,  and  give 
stimulants,  which  may  be  repeated  in  one  hour  if  necessary.  The 
animal  should  be  placed  in  the  shade  and  kept  as  cool  and  quiet  as 
possible. 

HEAT  STROKE. — This  is  caused  by  excessive  exertion  and  the 
over-heating  of  the  whole  body. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  usually  requires  urging  for  some  time 
previous  to  the  appearance  of  any  other  symptom ;  perspiration 
is  checked ;  breathing  hurried ;  eyes  watery  or  bloodshot ;  nostrils 
dilated  and  very  red  gradually  turning  purple ;  pulse  rapid  but 
weak.  If  recovery  takes  place,  convalescence  extends  for  a  long 
period. 


DISEASES   AND   INJURIES  327 

Treatment. — Practically  the  same  as  for  sunstroke. 

THUMPS. — This  is  a  spasm  of  the  diaphragm  caused  by  over- 
exertion. 

Symptoms. — Severe  shocks,  accompanied  by  a  dull  thumping 
sound,  may  be  observed  in  the  left  side  and  flank.  The  horse 
breathes  with  a  quick  jerking  expiration. 

Treatment. — Absolute  quiet  is  essential.  Give  two  ounces  of 
aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in  a  pint  of  water,  or  two  ounces 
sweet  spirits  of  niter  and  two  drams  fluid  extract  belladonna  in 
a  pint  of  water.  If  necessary  repeat  either  dose  in  one  hour. 

SURRA. — This  is  a  fatal  disease  which  prevails  in  many  tropical 
countries  under  various  local  names.  It  is  caused  by  a  specific 
infection,  the  parasites  being  known  under  the  general  term  of 
Trypanosoma,  which  is  also  responsible  for  the  tsetse  fly  disease 
of  South  Africa.  The  disease  is  not  confined  to  horses  and  mules 
but  affects  other  animals ;  the  parasite  has  been  identified  in 
carabao,  camels,  monkeys,  dogs  and  rats. 

Surra  occurs  over  large  areas  of  tropical  countries  and  is 
usually  more  severe  during  the  rainy  season.  The  disease  has 
raged  in  Burma  and  China  where  the  temperature  ranges  gen- 
erally lower  than  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  disease  has 
been  reported  in  India,  Persia,  Syria,  Tonquin,  Java,  Borneo, 
Madagascar,  Egypt  and  South  Africa  and  in  all  cases  the  fatal 
nature  of  the  malady  has  been  the  same  as  in  the  Philippines.  The 
difficulty  and  expense  attendant  upon  bringing  animals  from  the 
United  States  caused  every  effort  to  be  made  to  find  some  treat- 
ment or  cure  which  would  save  them  to  the  service.  No  doubt 
good  nursing  and  some  forms  of  treatment  prolonged  the  lives 
of  many  surra  infected  animals.  The  final  result  shows,  however, 
that  these  efforts  were  not  only  of  no  avail  but  in  the  end  were 


328  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

harmful,  in  that  surra  cases  were  kept  at  stations  until  the  dis- 
ease had  been  communicated  to  many  other  animals  which  might 
possibly  have  been  saved.  As  soon  as  the  deadly  nature  of  the 
disease  became  positively  known,  the  gravity  of  the  situation  was 
recognized  and  every  effort  was  strained  towards  prevention 
rather  than  further  attempts  at  cure. 

While  the  origin  of  surra  may  be  in  doubt,  it  is  now  generally 
recognized  as  more  prevalent  in  wet  weather,  probably  because 
the  carriers  of  infection  are  more  numerous  then,  than  during 
the  dry  season.  It  is  accepted  as  the  result  of  much  experiment 
that  the  disease  once  introduced  is  rapidly  disseminated  through 
the  agency  of  flies  and  other  insects.  The  age,  sex  and  breed  of 
the  animals  seem  to  play  no  part  in  the  dissemination  of  the  dis- 
ease. Native  ponies  seem  to  possess  no  advantage  over  imported 
animals.  It  has  heretofore  been  accepted  that  the  disease  origi- 
nates in  the  horse  through  eating  grass  cut  from  marsh  or  over- 
flowed land  but  the  results  of  the  most  recent  experiments  in  the 
Philippines  are  opposed  to  this  theory.  The  consensus  of  opinion 
of  recent  investigators  is  that  the  disease  is  not  communicated 
through  the  taking  of  infected  water  or  food  into  the  system  so 
long  as  the  mucous  membranes  are  sound.  When  infection  oc- 
curs through  the  alimentary  tract,  it  does  so  through  a  wounded 
mucous  membrane.  The  infection  may  be  conveyed  by  a  change 
of  bridles  between  a  sick  and  a  well  horse ;  through  a  healthy 
animal  licking  sores  on  a  sick  animal ;  by  grazing  over  the  same 
ground  or  drinking  from  the  same  vessel ;  the  infection  takes 
place  only  when  the  parasite  is  introduced  in  a  wound  or  lesion 
of  the  healthy  animal.  The  common  means  of  transmission  are 
biting  and  stinging  insects,  certain  flies,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  fleas 
being  the  usual  agents.  The  infection  is  due  to  mechanical  trans- 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  329 

mission  of  the  parasite.  It  has  been  determined  that  some  kinds 
of  animals  harbor  the  parasite  with  little  or  no  inconvenience, 
and  this  furnishes  a  possible  means  for  carrying  the  elements  of 
disease  over  from  year  to  year.  Recent  scientific  investigation 
in  the  Philippines  has  failed  to  produce  the  slightest  eveidence 
that  infection  by  food  or  drink  ever  occurs  through  sound  mncosa. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptoms  to  be  noticed  are  dullness  and 
a  rise  of  temperature  and  the  appearance  of  the  parasite  in  the 
blood.  For  some  days  a  remittent  or  intermittent  fever  may  be 
the  only  evidence  of  sickness.  One  of  the  earliest  symptoms  fol- 
lowing a  rise  of  temperature  is  the  pallor  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes, which  first  become  pearly  white  and  later  take  on  a  decided 
yellowish  tinge.  In  some  cases  the  submaxillary  glands  become 
swollen  and  sensitive  to  the  touch.  Respiration  is  quickened  and 
in  many  instances  more  or  less  labored.  The  animal  gradually 
becomes  stupid ;  a  watery,  catarrhal  discharge  takes  place ;  the 
hair  looks  rough  and  sometimes  falls  out  in  places ;  marked 
emaciation  develops ;  edema  of  the  genitals  and  surrounding  parts 
and  of  the  belly  appears ;  this  swelling  may  extend  forward 
between  the  fore  legs  and  to  the  chest.  The  edema  also  extends 
to  the  hind  legs,  being  most  marked  below  the  hocks  ;  the  fore  legs 
may  be  involved  but  usually  to  a  less  extent.  A  partial  paralysis 
of  the  hind  quarters  usually  occurs  which  causes  the  horse  to 
stagger  when  in  motion  and  is  very  characteristic. 

The  parasites  are  numerous  in  the  blood  during  the  first  few 
days  after  the  rise  of  temperature,  following  which  they  mys- 
teriously disappear.  This  appearance  and  disappearance  may  take 
place  a  number  of  times  during  the  course  of  the  disease.  In  the 
later  stages  of  the  disease  parasites  may  be  found  in  the  blood  in 
larger  numbers  and  with  a  higher  temperature  than  at  any  time 


330  HORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

previously.  There  has  been  a  wide  divergence  of  opinion  as  to 
the  period  of  incubation  of  the  surra  parasite  when  introduced 
into  the  system  of  a  horse.  The  most  recent  data  has  justified 
the  fixing  of  a  much  shorter  period  than  heretofore,  being  gen- 
erally within  ten  days,  and  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  between 
four  and  seven  days. 

There  are  usually  no  intestinal  symptoms  of  importance  and  the 
appetite  remains  good  except  at  the  height  of  the  fever.  In  many 
cases  a  severe  diarrhoea  develops  a  few  days  before  death. 

Anemia  is  progressive  and  is  a  constant,  prominent  symptom. 
The  discharge  from  the  eyes,  at  first  watery,  gradually  becomes 
very  tenacious  and  solidifies  in  the  corners  of  the  eyes.  In  some 
stages  of  the  disease  various  skin  eruptions  occur,  frequently 
resulting  in  localized  ulceration.  As  the  disease  progresses, 
thirst  increases,  the  body  becomes  more  and  more  sluggish,  the 
animal  hangs  its  head  and  is  heedless  of  what  is  going  on  about 
it,  paying  no  attention  to  swarms  of  flies.  The  pulse  is  at  first 
normal,  but  the  heart  becomes  weaker,  the  edema  increases  and 
death  from  heart  failure  generally  occurs.  The  course  of  the 
disease  varies  greatly  in  individual  cases,  some  dying  suddenly 
and  others  lingering  for  many  weeks. 

Treatment. — The  mortality  experienced  in  the  Philippine 
Islands  has  been  total,  and  until  scientists  discover  some  means 
of  rendering  animals  immune,  the  only  safe  plan  is  to  isolate 
each  animal  coming  under  suspicion  and  as  soon  as  a  diagnosis 
of  surra  is  pronounced  the  animal  should  be  destroyed.  The 
isolation  of  suspicious  cases  should  be  as  complete  as  possible  and 
protection  should  be  directed  so  as  to  exclude  flies,  mosquitoes, 
fleas  and  rats ;  this  is  the  only  way  to  prevent  infection  being 
carried.  Experiments  have  disclosed  that  flies  can  transfer  the 


DISEASES   AND   INJURIES  331 

parasites  on  their  probosii  or  feet  and  infect  a  wounded  surface 
within  24  to  36  hours  after  leaving  a  surra  affected  animal. 

FOREIGN  BODIES  IN  THE  EYE. — These  are  generally  seeds, 
particles  of  hay  or  straw,  or  small  grains  of  dirt.  The  trouble 
usually  occurs  at  night,  and  is  indicated  by  tears  more  or  less 
profuse  running  from  a  closed  eye. 

Treatment. — The  particles  will  be  generally  found  under  the 
upper  eyelid,  which  may  be  gently  turned  back  over  a  pencil  or 
other  smooth  article,  and  the  irritating  substance  removed ;  after- 
ward bathe  the  eye  in  lukewarm  water,  and  cover  it  with  a  wet 
cloth. 

LACERATION  OF  EYELID. — This  occurs  from  being  bitten  by 
another  horse,  striking  against  nails  or  splinters  while  rubbing 
against  the  stall. 

Treatment. — No  part  should  be  cut  away  unless  it  is  so  badly 
lacerated  as  to  make  reunion  improbable.  There  is  a  strong 
natural  tendency  to  reunion  of  these  parts,  and  with  judicious 
management  a  successful  result  is  often  obtained  even  in  very 
severe  injuries.  The  parts  may  be  brought  together  with  two  or 
three  stitches.  A  wet  cloth  should  be  hung  over  the  eye,  and  care 
taken  to  prevent  the  animal  rubbing  against  the  manger. 

MANGE. — This  disease  depends  upon  the  presence  of  a  parasitic 
insect,  which  is  so  minute  as  to  be  seen  only  with  much  difficulty. 
The  attacks  cause  itching  of  the  skin,  and  the  hair  falls  off  in 
patches.  Any  horse  affected  should  be  isolated,  and  other  animals 
should  not  be  groomed  with  the  same  brush  and  currycomb.  It 
generally  commences  at  the  roots  of  the  hair  of  the  mane  and 
tail.  Minute  pustules  appear,  the  summits  of  which  gradually 
expand,  burst,  and  coalesce  with  one  another,  and  the  united  dis- 


332  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

charge  from  them  forms  patches  of  crusts  upon  the  skin.  It  is 
under  these  crusts  that  the  hair  loosens  and  falls  out. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  mange  must  be  thorough  to  be 
effective.  The  parts  affected  should  be  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  and  be  dressed  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  the 
proportion  of  half  an  ounce  of  the  acid  to  a  pint  of  water,  going 
over  a  part  of  the  horse  each  day.  In  slight  and  recent  cases  the 
skin  will  recover  its  tone  when  the  mites  have  been  killed,  and  in 
most  cases  the  hair  will  grow  out  again.  Only  a  small  portion 
of  the  affected  surface,  not  exceeding  an  eighth,  should  be  covered 
each  day,  for  the  carbolic  acid,  if  too  freely  used,  may  be  absorbed 
by  the  skin  and  poison  the  animal.  Creolin  is  much  safer  in  the 
farrier's  hands  and  is  quite  as  effective.  A  solution  of  one  part 
creolin  to  thirty  or  forty  of  water  may  be  used  with  impunity,  or 
a  mixture  of  five  parts  creolin  and  twenty  parts  cosmoline  may 
be  applied  after  washing. 

SCRATCHES. — This  is  a  condition  of  the  skin  in  and  about  the 
hollow  of  the  heel  akin  to  chapped  hands ;  it  is  also  called  cracked 
heels.  It  is  usually  produced  by  exposure  to  wet  and  cold.  In 
the  chronic  form  it  is  known  as  grease.  Clipping  of  the  long  hair 
or  fetlocks,  which  is  the  natural  protection  of  the  parts,  is  apt  to 
produce  it.* 

Symptoms. — Lameness,  more  pronounced  when  starting  off. 
Dry,  inflamed  condition  of  the  skin  about  the  heel,  and  formation 
of  small  crusts,  from  which  a  thin,  watery  discharge  exudes. 

Treatment. — Keep  the  parts  dry,  if  possible.     If  necessary  to 

*  In  preparing  his  troop  for  the  annual  visit  of  the  Inspector-General 
during  the  spring,  the  author  was  misled  by  a  spell  of  warm  weather,  and 
premature  shedding  of  the  horses,  and  in  consequence  had  all  the  fetlocks 
trimmed.  On  the  day  of  the  inspection  a  cold  rain  set  in,  and  almost  the 
entire  troop  broke  out  in  a  few  days  with  clearly  defined  cases  of  scratches. 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  333 

wash,  do  so  with  warm  water  and  castile  soap,  and  dry  thoroughly 
If  the  skin  be  unbroken,  rub  with  fresh  lard  and  vaseline.  Dust 
with  powdered  alum  twice  a  day.  If  cracked,  rub  with  one  part 
oxide  of  zinc  and  six  parts  of  cosmoline,  mixed,  or  one  part 
sulphur  to  six  of  cosmoline.  It  is  a  troublesome  affection,  and  if 
the  animals  are  in  camp,  and  exposed  to  standing  on  muddy  picket 
lines,  it  is  very  difficult  to  cure. 

BROKEN  KNEES. — Under  this  name  are  included  all  injuries  to 
the  knees,  from  a  simple  scratch  to  serious  fractures  of  the  bones, 
and  which  usually  arise  from  a  fall. 

Treatment. — If  the  skin  is  simply  bruised,  the  hair  scraped  off 
and  a  little  blood  oozing  from  the  surface  of  the  skin,  a  dressing 
of  white  lotion  will  probably  heal  it,  and  the  hair  will  soon  grow 
again. 

When  the  skin  is  cut,  wash  it  thoroughly  to  remove  dirt  and 
foreign  substances,  clip  away  the  hair,  bring  the  edges  together, 
and  fasten  with  plaster.  Put  a  muslin  bandage  around  the  knee. 
In  all  cases  the  limb  must  be  kept  as  free  from  motion  as  possible. 
Tie  up  the  horse's  head  so  that  he  cannot  lie  down  for  a  few 
days,  and  where  he  will  not  be  apt  to  strike  his  wounded  knee 
against  the  manger. 

If  inflammation  sets  in  free  exit  must  be  allowed  for  pus,  and 
hot  fomentations  applied  until  it  subsides,  after  which  the  healing 
process  may  be  encouraged  by  cold  applications.  A  pledget  of 
wool  or  tow,  covered  with  white  of  egg  and  placed  on  the  wound, 
and  a  wet  pad  bandaged  lightly  over  this,  will  exclude  air  and 
dirt. 

If  the  tendon  is  crushed  the  case  may  become  so  serious  as  to 
call  for  the  destruction  of  the  animal,  as  is  done  in  case  the  acci- 
dent has  been  sufficiently  severe  to  fracture  one  or  more  bones  of 
the  knee. 


334  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

CALKING  or  TREADS. — This  is  an  injury  of  the  coronet,  gen- 
erally inflicted  by  the  shoe  of  the  other  foot,  or  by  the  foot  of 
another  horse  in  the  herd,  or  in  ranks. 

Treatment. — Remove  any  jagged  ends  and  apply  tincture  of 
arnica.  Keep  the  wound  clean,  and  bathe  three  times  a  day  with 
white  lotion.  If  neglected  it  may  terminate  in  quittor. 

CANKER. — This  is  a  morbid  secretion  of  the  sensitive  frog  and 
sole,  involving  the  corresponding  insensitive  parts.  It  usually  has 
its  origin  in  neglected  thrush,  but  it  may  be  due  to  constitutional 
causes.  Both  thrush  and  canker  are  very  prevalent  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  probably  owing  to  the  dampness  and  mud  which 
prevail  for  a  greater  portion  of  the  time  in  that  climate. 

Symptoms. — These  consist  of  an  abundant,  foetid,  and  colorless 
discharge  from  the  frog,  which  is  large,  spongy,  and  covered  by 
a  fungoid  growth,  intermixed  with  offensive  matter. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  the  complete  exposure  of  the  dis- 
eased surface,  in  the  application  of  pressure,  and  in  thorough 
dryness.  The  diseased  portion,  including  the  sole,  must  be  re- 
moved, and  the  surface  of  the  cavity  burnt  with  a  hot  iron ;  dress 
with  powdered  calomel  or  sulphate  of  copper  daily.  The  sole  is 
then  covered  with  dry  tow,  and  the  foot  enclosed  in  bandages  or 
a  leather  boot. 

CAPPED  HOCK. — Synovial  capped  hock  is  a  firm,  fluctuating 
swelling  on  and  about  the  point  of  the  hock,  resulting  in  lameness 
and  sometimes  decay  of  the  bone.  The  injury  is  usually  caused  by 
striking  the  hocks  in  kicking  or  while  in  the  act  of  lying  down 
or  getting  up. 

Treatment. — Use  either  applications  of  hot  water  or  cooling 
lotions  to  reduce  the  swelling,  then  apply  a  blister.  The  swelling 
usually  becomes  chronic. 


DISEASES   AND   INJURIES  335 

CONTRACTED  HEELS. — This  is  a  shrinking  of  the  tissues  of  the 
foot  and  drawing  together  of  the  heels  which  is  very  common 
among  horses.  It  usually  affects  the  fore  feet.  It  arises  to  a 
certain  extent  in  the  feet  of  horses  raised  in  marshy  districts  and 
transferred  to  streets  and  stables  where  there  is  little  moisture. 
The  common  causes  of  contracted  heels  are  faulty  shoeing,  cut- 
ting away  bars,  frog  and  heels  and  rasping  the  hoof  wall. 

Symptoms. — The  foot  has  lost  its  circular  shape  and  the  heels 
are  drawn  together  so  much  that  the  circumference  of  the  foot 
at  the  bottom  is  less  than  at  the  coronet.  The  frog  is  much 
shrunken  and  is  pinched  up  between  the  heels  instead  of  being  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  The  sole  is  very  concave  and  the  whole 
hoof  is  hard,  dry  and  lifeless.  On  first  leaving  his  stall  the  animal 
is  stiff  and  inclined  to  walk  on  his  toes. 

Treatment. — It  is  most  difficult  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of 
contracted  feet  if  the  animal  must  continue  at  work  on  hard  roads. 
Stop  rasping  the  hoof  and  cutting  the  bars,  frog  and  heels  and 
keep  the  feet  moist.  If  possible,  remove  the  shoes  and  turn  the 
horse  out  in  a  moist  meadow  pasture.  If  the  animal  must  continue 
at  work,  reset  the  shoes  frequently  and  do  not  use  calks  unless 
absolutely  necessary.  Owing  to  a  tendency  to  cause  stumbling 
it  is  a  serious  disease  for  a  cavalry  or  saddle  horse. 

CORNS. — Corns  are  bruises  of  the  sole,  usually  occurring  in  the 
angle  formed  by  the  bars  and  the  crust  in  front  of  the  heel.  They 
are  rarely  found  on  the  hindfeet.  Corns  are  very  similar  to  blood 
blisters  on  the  human  skin,  and  are  probably  formed  suddenly  by 
a  bruising  blow.  An  indirect  cause  of  corns  is  bad  shoeing,  the 
practice  of  filing  off  the  crust  to  make  a  good-looking  foot  from 
the  'blacksmith's  point  of  view,  and  also  from  the  senseless  and 
brutal  practice  of  cutting  out  the  bars.  Sometimes  they  are 


33^  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

probably  caused  by  stepping  on  a  stone.  When  the  horse  goes 
lame  from  no  other  known  cause,  apply  the  pinchers,  as  before 
described,  to  various  points,  with  firm  pressure,  until  the  flinching 
of  the  horse  shows  that  the  right  spot  has  been  found. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  usually  consists  in  removing  the 
cause,  which  is  nearly  always  undue  pressure  of  the  shoe.  Paring 
out  corns  gets  rid  of  them  for  a  time,  but  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  only  means  of  preventing  a  recurrence  of  them 
consists  in  the  maintenance  of  a  good,  sound,  unrasped  crust  and 
unpared  bars,  in  order  that  properly  fitted  shoes  may  have  a 
correct  bearing. 

CURB. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  ligament,  accompanied 
by  a  hard  and  painful  swelling  at  the  back  of  the  hock,  usually 
caused  by  a  sprain.  In  the  earliest  stages  it  shows  itself  as  a 
small,  hard  lump  or  ridge  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  back  of  the 
hock  about  five  inches  below  the  point.  As  the  disease  progresses, 
it  is  often  accompanied  by  lameness  of  a  severe  character.  Hocks 
which  are  much  bent  are  peculiarly  liable  to  curb  and  other  ail- 
ments resulting  from  sprains. 

Treatment. — Reduce  the  inflammation  by  fomentations ;  use  a 
high-heeled  shoe,  and  apply  a  blister  to  stimulate  absorption  of  the 
exudation.  If  the  inflammation  subsides  and  the  lameness  con- 
tinues, firing  may  be  tried. 

INTERFERING. — This  is  striking  a  fetlock  with  the  opposite  foot, 
causing  a  contusion,  often  abrading  or  scratching  the  surface,  and 
commonly  occurring  with  the  hind  feet  only.  Horses  when  much 
fatigued  are  apt  to  interfere,  particularly  if  badly  shod.  Injury 
is  sometimes  occasioned  by  a  poorly  clinched  nail.  The  occurrence 
is  generally  indicated  by  the  horse  flinching,  and  if  badly  struck 
he  may  carry  the  injured  leg  off  the  ground  for  several  steps 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  337 

Proper  shoeing  is  the  best  remedy.  Leather  pads  are  used  with 
driving  animals  to  receive  the  blow  and  prevent  cutting  the  leg. 

LAMINITIS  or  FOUNDER. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  sensi- 
tive laminae  which  cover  the  outer  and  upper  surface  of  the  coffin 
bone,  and  is  known  commonly  as  "  founder."  The  original 
attack  is  always  acute.  It  may  be  entirely  relieved,  but  often  a 
change  of  structure  results  from  the  effects  of  the  acute  attack. 
It  is  very  painful  and  is  attended  with  much  lameness.  The  pain 
is  due  to  confinement  of  the  products  effused  by  the  inflammation 
within  the  outer  hard  case  of  the  foot,  and  the  pressure  thereby 
caused  on  the  sensitive  structures  of  the  interior. 

The  immediate  cause  most  frequently  is  concussion.  It  may 
occur  in  all  the  feet,  but  the  fore  feet  are  more  often  affected  than 
the  hind  ones.  Concussion,  over-exertion  and  indigestion  are 
frequent  causes. 

Symptoms. — The  attack  occurs  very  suddenly.  The  horse  can 
hardly  be  induced  to  move.  He  seems  as  if  all  his  body  was 
cramped.  There  is  heat  in  the  feet  affected.  As  the  seat  of  the 
disease  is  in  the  front  portion  of  the  feet,  the  animal  will  save 
that  portion  of  his  feet  as  much  as  possible  by  throwing  his  weight 
on  his  heels.  On  account  of  the  pain  the  pulse  is  always 
accelerated. 

Treatment. — Endeavor  to  relieve  the  local  inflammation  within 
the  feet.  Mild  purgatives  should  be  given,  and  if  the  bowels  are 
torpid,  use  injections  of  warm  water.  Aloes  or  strong  cathartics 
should  not  be  given. 

Remove  the  shoes,  and  rasp  the  wall  down  level  with  the  sole, 
so  as  to  allow  it  and  the  frog  to  bear  the  weight.  Do  not  pare 
the  sole. 

Give  laxative  food,  and  plenty  of  water.  Give  two  ounces  of 
22 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

the  bicarbonate  of  sodium  twice  a  day  in  the  food,  and  if  the  fever 
be  high  give  a  drench  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  drops  of  tincture 
of  aconite  in  water,  and  repeat  at  intervals  of  four  hours.  Put 
the  feet  in  a  tub  of  warm  water,  and  also  apply  poultices  for  a 
few  days.  Give  plenty  of  bedding,  as  the  horse  should  lie  down  as 
much  as  possible. 

NAVICULAR  DISEASE. — This,  in  its  primary  stage,  is  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lower  side  of  the  navicular  bone.  After  a  time  the 
tendon  which  passes  under  the  bone,  and  its  cartilage  and  bursa 
become  involved.  The  navicular  bone  acts  as  a  roller  for  the 
tendon  which  passes  under  it,  and  is  attached  to  the  coffin  bone, 
and  hence  is  peculiarly  liable  to  suffer  from  the  effects  of  con- 
cussion. It  rarely  affects  the  hind  feet,  and  is  most  frequently 
seen  in  fore  feet  with  narrow  and  high  heels.  The  inflammation 
once  set  up  in  the  bone  leads  to  a  variety  of  changes  both  in  its 
external  and  internal  structure. 

Symptoms. — Lameness  may  appear  suddenly  and  without  any 
apparent  cause.  It  may  disappear,  and  after  a  time  reappear, 
either  in  the  same  or  in  the  other  foot,  and  thus  go  on  for  some 
time.  In  time  the  symptoms  become  more  marked,  and  in  most 
cases  the  first  sign  is  "  pointing  of  the  toe  "  in  the  stable,  or  when 
at  rest  outside,  followed  by  shortness  in  the  step  and  lameness. 
The  foot  and  the  horse  may  be  examined  and  nothing  wrong  be 
found.  The  animal  may  appear  sound  one  day  and  have  a  return 
of  the  lameness  the  next. 

With  the  symptoms  described,  if  no  other  cause  such  as  corns 
or  laminitis  can  be  found,  and  there  is  no  external  heat  or  injury, 
it  is  quite  safe  to  diagnose  the  case  as  navicular  disease. 

Treatment. — The  shoes  should  be  taken  off  and  the  frogs 
allowed  to  touch  the  ground.  The  feet  should  be  placed  in  a  cold- 


DISEASES   AND   INJURIES  339 

water  bath  for  some  hours  during  the  day,  and  a  linseed  meal 
poultice  applied  at  night.  The  animal  should  be  encouraged  to  lie 
down  so  as  to  get  the  weight  off  his  feet,  and  he  is  likely  to  do 
so  if  isolated  in  a  dark  stall.  At  the  end  of  a  couple  of  weeks, 
blister  the  coronet  mildly.  Sometimes  it  is  well  to  insert  a  seton 
in  the  frog. 

Horses  are  sometimes  "  nerved "  for  this  disease,  but  such 
animals  soon  break  down,  and  are  obviously  unsafe  for  military 
service. 

PRICKING  OF  THE  FOOT. — This  is  caused  by  nails  actually 
penetrating  the  sensitive  laminae  which  line  the  interior  of  the 
horny  substance  of  the  foot,  or  by  their  being  driven  into  the  soft 
horn  which  surrounds  them.  In  the  latter  case  it  may  be  a  week 
or  two  before  the  lameness  disappears.  Picking  up  a  nail  produces 
a  similar  wound,  and  this  is  liable  to  occur  at  any  time  a  horse  is 
in  use.  An  injury  of  this  kind  should  be  promptly  treated,  as  it 
may  result  seriously,  even  producing  lockjaw. 

When  the  sensitive  sole  is  injured,  inflammation  almost  always 
occurs,  terminating  in  the  formation  of  pus,  which  unless  aided 
to  escape,  may  burrow  its  way  up  and  form  an  opening  upon  the 
coronet,  producing  a  fistulous  wound  called  quittor.  In  any  case 
the  horse  shows  lameness. 

Treatment. — If  not  readily  seen,  the  exact  point  of  the  lameness 
may  be  detected  by  pinching  around  the  foot  with  a  pair  of 
pinchers,  one  branch  being  against  the  outside  of  the  hoof  while 
the  other  presses  the  sole  inside  of  the  shoe.  The  injured  spot 
being  found,  draw  the  nails  from  the  shoe,  carefully  watching  each 
as  it  comes  out.  If  one  appears  wet,  it  is  probably  the  cause  of 
the  trouble. 

In  all  cases  it  is  essential  to  pare  out  freely,  not  merely  the  seat 


34O  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

of  puncture,  but  the  surrounding  sole  for  a  considerable  distance, 
with  the  view  of  affording  an  easy  exit  for  any  matter  which  may 
form.  The  foot  should  then  be  soaked  in  hot  water  for  at  least 
an  hour. 

Having  taken  these  precautions  in  cases  treated  immediately 
after  the  occurrence  of  the  injury,  that  is,  before  inflammation  has 
begun,  close  the  puncture  at  once  with  tar  and  tow,  to  exclude  the 
air  and  lessen  the  chance  of  inflammation.  Perfect  rest  should 
be  given. 

As  a  rule,  inflammation  will  set  in  and  the  formation  of  pus 
commence  before  the  injury  is  noticed.  In  addition  to  paring  the 
sole,  recourse  must  be  had  to  poultices  of  linseed  meal.  The  in- 
sensitive sole  having  been  pared  off,  the  horse  will  not  be  fit  for 
work  until  nature  has  resupplied  enough  of  it  for  the  protection 
of  the  foot,  unless  an  artificial  covering  such  as  a  leather  shoe  is 
provided.  When  prompt  measures  are  taken,  injuries  of  the 
sensitive  sole  seldom  prove  serious. 

PUNCTURES  OF  THE  FROG. — These  are  similar  in  character  to 
those  of  the  sole,  and  require  similar  treatment.  They  nearly 
always  arise  from  picking  up  a  nail.  When  taken  in  time  they 
yield  to  treatment  more  readily  than  prick  of  the  sole.  If  neg- 
lected, however,  they  are  apt  to  lead  to  extensive  disease  of  the 
frog,  and  canker  may  be  the  result.  In  rare  cases  the  navicular 
bone  may  be  punctured,  when  perfect  recovery  need  not  be  ex- 
pected. 

QUITTOR. — This  term  applies  to  several  varieties  of  foot  affec- 
tions wherein  the  tissues  undergo  degeneration  and  are  eliminated 
or  sloughed  off  by  suppuration.  Its  more  common  form  is  a  fistula 
of  the  coronet,  which  burrows  in  various  directions,  with  usually 
several  openings  upon  the  quarters  and  heels  of  the  coronet.  The 


DISEASES   AND    INJURIES  341 

most  common  cause  is  a  severe  tread  or  bruise  on  the  coronet.  It 
may  also  arise  from  a  neglected  corn  or  prick  of  the  sole  and  may 
involve  not  only  the  subcutaneous  tissues  but  also  the  tendons 
of  the  leg,  ligaments  of  the  joints  and  the  bones  of  the  foot. 

Treatment. — The  first  thing  is  always  to  afford  an  easy  exit  for 
the  pus.  Pare  the  sole  clean,  to  see  if  the  trouble  has  been  caused 
by  a  wound  in  that  part.  If  it  has,  cut  down  into  the  sole  and 
open  a  channel  for  the  pus  to  escape  downward.  If  no  sinuses 
have  formed,  apply  a  linseed  poultice,  followed  by  a  zinc  and  lead 
lotion.  Great  care  must  be  taken,  as  in  all  cases  of  confined  pus, 
to  prevent  the  external  sore  from  healing  over  before  the  internal 
disease  is  entirely  eradicated. 

RINGBONES. — These  are  bony  deposits  upon  either  the  upper 
or  lower  pastern  bones.  A  ringbone  may  originate  in  heredity 
but  usually  comes  from  a  colt  being  put  to  work  too  early  in  life 
or  from  bruises,  blows  or  strains.  The  degree  of  lameness  does 
not  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  deposit. 

Symptoms. — Enlargement  just  above  the  coronet  or  on  the 
upper  pastern  bone.  It  is  not  easy  to  detect  in  its  incipiency  and 
is  not  usually  recognized  until  ossification  is  established.  The 
horse  may  go  lame  upon  leaving  the  stable  but  appears  to  recover 
when  warmed  up  with  exercise.  Lameness  is  more  perceptible 
on  hard  than  soft  ground. 

Treatment. — Trim  the  hoof  so  as  to  balance  the  foot  and  pre- 
vent abnormal  strain.  If  inflammation  still  exists,  at  the  time 
the  trouble  is  discovered,  apply  a  blister  of  biniodide  of  mercury 
and  cantharides  and  let  the  animal  rest  for  a  month  at  least.  If 
this  fails,  point  firing  may  be  tried.  The  hot  iron  should  be 
touched  well  to  the  bone  as  superficial  firing  is  of  no  value.  When 


342  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

all  other  means  have  failed  the  veterinarian  may  prolong  the  use- 
fulness of  the  animal  by  "  nerving  "  the  foot  or  leg. 

SAND  CRACKS. — These  are  cracks  in  the  fibers  of  the  hoof  wall, 
running  up  and  down,  amounting  sometimes  only  to  a  flaw,  and 
at  others  to  a  fissure  entirely  through  the  substance  of  the  horn. 
Cracks  are  sometimes  caused  by  brittleness  of  the  crust,  arising 
from  the  practice  of  cutting  away  the  sole  and  rasping  off  the 
hoof.  The  brittleness  may  be  constitutional,  some  horses  being 
evidently  predisposed  to  it.  The  cracks  may  also  be  traced  at 
times  to  contracted  heels,  aggravated,  if  not  produced,  by  cutting 
away  the  bars  or  opening  the  heels. 

These  cracks  do  not  ordinarily  cause  lameness  until  sufficiently 
deep  to  expose  the  sensitive  laminae,  or  until  they  reach  the  coro- 
nary band.  They  then  become  very  painful  and  the  lameness  is  ex- 
treme. They  become  so  bad  at  times  as  to  open  and  close  as  the 
horse  raises  and  puts  down  his  foot. 

Treatment. — With  a  knife  scrape  the  sharp  edges  of  the  crack 
to  its  bottom,  until  a  clean  groove  has  been  formed.  Wash  out 
with  zinc  and  lead  lotion,  and  blister  the  coronet,  rubbing  it  in 
every  two  or  three  days,  to  stimulate  the  formation  of  new  horn. 

If  the  crack  does  not  extend  the  entire  length  of  the  hoof,  draw 
a  deep  transverse  furrow  with  a  red-hot  iron  at  either  end  or  both, 
sufficient  to  stop  the  crack  from  extending,  but  not  deep  enough 
to  cause  pain. 

Toe  cracks  usually  extend  the  entire  height  of  the  foot,  and 
expose  the  flesh,  which  is  apt  to  become  granulated.  These 
granulations  should  not  be  removed  with  caustic,  which  only 
inflames  the  tissues  more  than  before.  When  they  have  appeared, 
cut  them  away  with  one  stroke  of  a  sharp  knife.  The  flow  of 
blood  which  follows  will  be  of  advantage  to  the  parts.  Bathe 
with  white  lotion  twice  a  day. 


DISEASES   AND   INJURIES  343 

When  the  inflammation  has  subsided,  the  fissure  may  be  drawn 
together  by  cutting  a  niche  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep,  half 
or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  crack  on  each  side,  and 
driving  a  flat  horseshoe  nail  through  from  one  to  the  other;  the 
ends  should  be  drawn  together  and  clinched  with  pinchers.  It 
should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  horn  of  the  hoof  is  thick  below, 
and  thin  towards  the  coronet,  so  that  nails  cannot  be  driven  very 
high  up. 

Clasps  are  manufactured  for  drawing  together  quarter  cracks, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  using  nails  advantageously  on  the  thin 
quarters  of  the  hoof. 

Shoeing  with  tips,  and  also  with  three-quarter  bar  shoes  is 
advantageous  in  treatment  of  toe  and  quarter  cracks. 

SEEDY  TOE. — This  term  is  applied  to  a  separation  of  the  outer 
wall  or  crust  of  the  hoof  from  the  inner  layer  of  soft  horn  derived 
from  the  laminae.  It  is  caused  by  an  unhealthy  secretion  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  laminae,  which  is  incapable  of  maintaining 
the  union  between  the  structures.  The  disease  always  commences 
in  the  lower  portion  of  the  laminae,  and  extends  upward  and 
laterally.  Though  called  seedy  toe,  the  disease  frequently  affects 
the  quarters. 

Treatment. — Cut  away  all  that  portion  of  the  crust  which  .has 
become  detached  from  the  laminae,  and  if  the  disease  shows  signs 
of  extending,  such  further  portions  as  may  be  necessary.  Apply 
a  bar  shoe  with  a  toe  clip,  blister  the  coronet  every  other  day,  and 
cover  the  exposed  surface  every  day  with  an  ointment  of  melted 
lard  and  beeswax,  into  which  turpentine  is  stirred.  This  will  keep 
out  moisture.  Feed  liberally,  and  keep  the  foot  dry. 

SIDEBONES. — This  consists  in  ossification  of  the  elastic  lateral 
cartilages,  or  wings  of  the  bone  of  the  foot.  Nature  supplied 


344  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

cartilage  instead  of  bone  in  this  part,  in  order  to  give  elasticity 
toward  the  heels,  and  any  alteration,  such  as  conversion  into  bone, 
interferes  with  elasticity,  although  it  may  not  occasion  lameness. 
In  light  horses  sidebones  are  seldom  visible  to  the  eye,  but  their 
existence  may  be  ascertained  by  feeling  the  wings  of  the  bone  of 
the  foot. 

Treatment. — There  is  no  cure,  but  if  the  cartilages  are  still 
undergoing  change,  blistering  the  coronet  will  hasten  the  process. 

BONE  SPAVIN. — This  disease  generally  appears  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  hock,  and  usually  involves  two  or  more  of  the  weight- 
bearing  bones.  Spavins  once  fully  formed  cannot  be  removed  by 
any  remedial  agent,  but  in  common  with  most  abnormal  growths, 
become  less  as  age  advances.  The  common  causes  are  undue  con- 
cussion, pressure  or  sprain.  Hereditary  influence  has  much  to 
do  with  production  of  spavin.  Spavin  is  serious  in  its  inception 
and  in  its  progress  and  when  once  established  is  most  destructive 
of  the  value  and  usefulness  of  the  horse. 

Symptoms. — During  the  formation  of  the  bony  deposit  some 
degree  of  abnormal  heat  may  be  detected,  but  usually  the  disease 
first  makes  its  presence  known  by  the  prominence  of  the  bony 
growth,  which  destroys  the  symmetry  of  the  hock.  Some  stiff- 
ness of  the  hock  and  an  occasional  tripping  of  the  toe  may  be 
noticed.  Peculiarities  will  be  observed  when  the  animal  is  trotted 
on  hard,  smooth  ground,  especially  when  turning,  for  the  horse 
is  apt  to  flinch  perceptibly.  Exercise  for  a  few  minutes  greatly 
diminishes  the  symptoms,  but  after  exercise  and  the  horse  has 
cooled  off,  the  stiffness  will  recur,  probably  in  an  increased  degree. 

If  the  horse  is  worked  during  the  formation  of  a  spavin,  the 
inflammation  will  greatly  increase,  and  an  enormous  deposit  of 
bone  may  be  the  result.  The  deposits  may  be  on  both  hocks,  but 


DISEASES   AND   INJURIES  345 

they  are  rarely  similar ;  therefore  by  comparing  one  hock  with 
another  it  can  be  determined  if  anything  abnormal  exists. 

If  spavin  is  suspected  and  any  doubt  exists,  lift  the  hind  leg 
and  forcibly  flex  it  up  to  the  thigh  several  times.  After  this  trot 
the  horse  slowly,  and  if  he  has  spavin  he  will  probably  show  lame- 
ness. 

Treatment. — If  incipient  spavin  be  suspected,  rest  is  the  great 
essential.  Cold  applications  are  useful,  and  tincture  of  iodine  may 
prove  beneficial,  a  dram  being  injected  under  the  skin  in  each  of 
from  two  to  four  places.  If  the  inflammatory  action  does  not  sub- 
side, and  the  horse  continues  lame,  it  will  be  well  to  use  a  blister. 
If  properly  performed,  firing  is  regarded  as  an  efficacious  remedy. 

BOG  SPAVIN. — This  is  a  distention  of  the  capsular  ligament  of 
the  true  hock  joint.  The  swelling,  which  is  tense  and  fluctuating, 
shows  itself  primarily  in  front  and  the  inner  side,  because  in  that 
part  the  capsule  is  large  and  loose.  It  is  a  defect  commonly  oc- 
curring in  weak  hocks,  and  may  become  serious. 

Treatment. — This  should  be  directed  toward  allaying  pain  and 
reducing  its  size,  but  the  swelling  should  never  be  punctured.  A 
wet  bandage  covered  with  oil  silk,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a 
flannel  bandage,  often  acts  favorably.  If  these  measures  fail  a 
stimulating  ointment  may  be  used,  but  as  a  rule  blisters  do  not 
prove  permanently  beneficial  in  this  disease. 

BLOOD  SPAVIN. — This  is  a  distention  of  the  veins  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  hock.  No  great  harm  results  from  the  dilatation  of  the 
vein,  although  it  is  both  a  blemish  and  a  defect. 

SPEEDY  CUT. — This  is  an  injury  caused  by  a  fore  foot  wounding 
the  opposite  leg  immediately  below,  and  sometimes  even  above 
the  knee.  It  is  usually  inflicted  at  a  gallop  when  the  horse  has 
begun  to  tire.  The  blow  frequently  causes  the  formation  of  pus. 


34/>  '  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Treatment. — If  pus  is  present  open  the  abscess  freely  to  give  it 
vent ;  bathe  with  warm  water  and  a  weak  zinc  wash. 

SPLINT. — This  is  a  deposit  of  bone,  either  between  one  of  the 
two  small  bones  and  the  cannon  bone,  or  upon  any  of  the  three 
bones  of  the  fore  leg.  The  deposit  generally  develops  on  the  innei 
side,  and  usually  a  little  above  the  center  of  the  cannon  bone 
between  the  knee  and  fetlock. 

A  simple  splint  in  a  position  removed  from  either  articulation 
or  tendon  is  not  looked  upon  as  serious,  or  classed  as  an  unsound  - 
ness ;  all  other  forms  are  liable  to  cause  lameness,  and  are  indica 
tive  of  more  disease  than  is  apparent.  There  should  be  classed 
under  this  head  those  close  to  the  knee ;  double  or  pegged  splints, 
that  is,  those  which  are  found  on  both  sides  with  a  communicating 
bar  running  from  one  to  the  other  and  which  passes  between  the 
bone  and  the  tendon  in  rear ;  two  or  more  on  the  same  side  con- 
nected, and  finally,  little  bony  deposits  involving  the  knee  joint. 

Treatment. — If  a  splint  does  not  cause  lameness  it  should  be  let 
alone.  When  once  fully  formed  it  cannot  be  removed,  but  often 
becomes  absorbed  as  the  horse  grows  older.  A  bandage  wet  in 
cold  water,  and  rest,  will  usually  be  sufficient,  but  if  the  horse 
continues  to  go  lame  after  a  rest  of  a  month  or  six  weeks,  and  the 
splint  is  still  sensitive,  it  may  be  advisable  to  apply  a  blister. 

SWELLED  LEGS. — This  is  commonly  called  stocking,  and  is 
usually  occasioned  by  want  of  exercise.  It  will  generally  dis- 
appear when  the  animal  is  exercised  or  worked. 

THOROUGHPIN. — This  is  a  bursal  enlargement  which  occurs  at 
the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  hock,  extending  across  the  joint 
from  side  to  side  between  the  bones.  In  a  medium  form  it  is 
common  in  cavalry  horses.  Unless  very  pronounced,  no  treat- 
ment is  required.  Cold  applications,  pressure,  or  counter  irrita- 
tion, are  used  in  bad  cases. 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  347 

THRUSH. — This  is  a  disease  of  the  frog  accompanied  by  a  foul 
discharge.  As  the  disease  advances  fissures  occur  in  the  side  of 
the  frog  close  to  the  heel,  from  which  foetid  matter  exudes.  The 
condition  is  generally  brought  on  by  wet,  unclean  stalls,  or  dirt 
of  some  kind,  such  as  stopping  the  feet  with  dung.  In  a  con- 
tracted foot  the  sole  is  lifted  off  the  ground  to  such  an  extent  that 
from  want  of  "use  the  frog  frequently  becomes  diseased.  Paring 
the  frog  has  a  similar  tendency. 

Treatment. — If  it  originates  from  dirt  remove  the  cause,  and 
keep  the  frog  clean  and  dry.  Any  ragged  parts  should  be  re- 
moved with  a  knife,  so  as  to  open  the  cracks  in  and  around  the 
frog.  Having  removed  the  cause,  endeavor  to  absorb  the  dis- 
charge. This  will  be  best  effected  by  daily  applications  of  calomel, 
powdered  sulphate  of  copper  or  iodoform.  Apply  pad  of  oakum 
to  keep  foot  clean.  Pine  tar  is  also  a  good  dressing  for  thrush. 

If  thrush  be  long  neglected  the  neighboring  parts  become  af- 
fected, and  in  bad  cases  the  whole  of  the  sensitive  sole  becomes 
involved. 

WINDGALLS. — These  are  soft,  pulpy  swellings  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  fetlock  joints.  They  vary  from  very  small  to  the  size 
of  a  hen's  egg.  They  are  quite  common  with  old  cavalry  horses, 
and  arise  from  over-exertion  and  irritation,  rather  than  from 
sprain.  As  they  are  very  apt  to  return,  and  they  do  not  specially 
inconvenience  the  horse,  it  is  not  customary  in  the  military  service 
to  subject  them  to  any  treatment. 

FISTULOUS  WITHERS. — This  is  the  presence  of  an  abscess  more 
or  less  formidable  at  the  withers,  caused  by  pressure  of  the  saddle 
or  other  bruising  injury.  In  most  cases  the  mischief  is  at  first 
slight,  and  a  few  days'  abstinence  from  work,  with  a  little  altera- 
tion of  the  saddle,  if  that  caused  the  trouble,  will  generally  effect 


348  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

a  cure  and  prevent  recurrence.  If  the  skin  is  tender  a  salt  and 
water  dressing  may  be  applied. 

When,  however,  the  cause  is  continued  or  repeated,  the  tissues 
under  the  skin  become  inflamed,  and  the  cartilaginous  pads  of 
the  ends  of  the  spinous  processes  may  be  injured.  If  such  be  the 
case  fomentations  must  be  applied  in  the  first  instance  to  reduce 
the  inflammation.  If  these  fail,  matter  will  probably  form  under 
the  skin. 

Unless  a  free  opening  is  made  for  its  escape  it  will  burrow  in, 
under,  and  among  the  muscles,  tendons  and  ligamentous  tissues 
which  lie  on  each  side  of  the  spine  or  withers,  and  will  form 
sinuses.  A  seton  should  be  introduced  to  enable  the  pus  to  escape, 
and  prevent  caries  of  the  spinous  processes.  If  the  latter  occurs 
the  diseased  bone  must  be  removed.  The  parts  frequently  heal 
over  nicely,  with  perhaps  a  slight  hollow,  but  a  serious  case  is 
apt  to  subject  the  horse  to  suspicion,  as  not  being  suitable  for  hard 
service  with  packed  saddles. 

POLL  EVIL. — This  is  a  fistulous  abscess  situated  on  top  of  the 
head  immediately  behind  the  ears,  and  is  usually  caused  by 
pressure  of  the  head-stall  or  accidental  violence.  At  the  first  stage 
it  may  be  recognized  as  a  soft,  fluctuating  tumor,  surrounded  by 
inflammatory  swelling,  and  attended  with  stiffness  of  the  neck. 
From  the  peculiar  position  of  the  injury,  the  matter  has  no 
depending  orifice,  and  unless  artificial  assistance  by  free  incision 
is  given  for  the  escape  of  the  matter,  it  will  burrow  downwards 
among  and  under  the  ligaments  which  support  the  head.  Among 
these  it  is  apt  to  form  large  and  deep  sinuses,  which  often  extend 
down  to  the  bone. 

Treatment. — Before  pus  is  formed,  reduce  the  inflammation  by 
the  application  of  cold  water  to  the  part,  and  by  administering 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  349 

purgatives  internally.  If  suppuration  becomes  established,  the 
abscess  must  be  opened  at  once  to  its  base,  so  that  the  pus  may 
escape  from  the  lowest  point.  The  opening  must  not  be  allowed 
to  close  too  soon ;  fomentations  should  be  repeatedly  applied.  In 
some  cases,  a  seton  inserted  fro:™  tlie  original  opening,  following 
the  fistula  and  brought  out  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  poll,  are 
very  successful. 

SORE  BACK. — This  may  take  the  form  of  slight  tumors,  sitfasts, 
or  saddle  galls.  They  are  generally  caused  by  friction  or  undue 
pressure  of  the  saddle,  and  in  the  case  of  team  horses,  of  the 
harness  or  collar.  Improper  saddling,  or  poor  riding  with  good 
saddling,  have  the  same  effects.  In  tropical  climates  or  in  hot 
weather  sore  backs  become  quickly  virulent  unless  carefully 
treated  at  once. 

Treatment. — The  most  essential  thing  is  to  remove  the  cause 
of  the  irritation  and  the  animal  should,  if  possible,  be  spared  from 
work  for  a  few  days.  Such  alteration  as  is  necessary  in  the 
equipment  should  be  made.  The  blanket  may  have  holes  cut  in 
it  over  the  swelling,  or  the  corners  turned  under  to  raise  the 
saddle  bars,  when  the  tumor  or  abrasion  is  near  the  edge  of  the 
saddle.  With  pack  animals,  the  hay  or  stuffing  must  be  altered, 
hard  lumps  removed,  and,  if  necessary,  a  chamber  or  hole  left 
over  the  affected  spot.  The  aparejo  is  the  best  pack  saddle  in 
existence  for  heavy  loads  in  the  hands  of  experts,  but  if  not  con- 
tinually watched,  will,  in  the  hands  of  poorly  instructed  troops, 
ruin  all  the  mules  in  a  few  days'  marching. 

The  tumor,  or  swelling,  will  be  best  treated  at  first  by  an  appli- 
cation of  salt  and  water.  If  the  irritation  is  not  removed,  and 
there  is  sign  of  suppuration,  it  must  be  treated  according  to  its 


350  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES 

nature  and  degree,  by  application  of  poultices  of  linseed  meal 
mixed  with  boiling  water,  and  sweet  oil  stirred  in  afterwards. 

Fluctuating  tumors  sometimes  require  to  be  laid  open  through 
the  center  from  end  to  end,  and  injected  with  a  weak  solution  of 
one  part  carbolic  acid  and  fifty  parts  water,  and  cold  dressings 
applied  afterwards  until  healed. 

When  one  of  these  swellings,  either  through  neglect  or  repeated 
recurrence  of  the  cause,  has  become  hard  and  insensible,  and  the 
skin  is  permanently  injured,  it  is  then  known  as  a  "  sitfast," 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  removing  it  or  effecting  a  cure.  The 
skin  becomes  thickened  and  half  dead,  and  is  often  adherent  to 
the  bottom  of  the  sore.  The  sitfast  will  frequently  be  found  to 
be  partially  separated  all  around  from  the  living  skin.  The  surest 
treatment  then  is  to  cut  it  out.  Remove  every  particle  of  the  hard, 
horny  skin,  after  which  it  may  be  carefully  touched  with  nitrate 
of  silver,  to  remove  any  of  the  disorganized  part  which  has  been 
left  by  the  knife. 

True  elastic  skin  of  the  original  quality  is  never  reproduced 
when  once  destroyed,  either  in  the  case  of  sitfasts  or  of  any  other 
injuries ;  a  substitute  is  formed  which  answers  sufficiently  well  in 
most  cases,  and  the  parts  will  frequently  contract  in  such  a  way 
as  to  leave  only  a  small  scar.  Care  should  subsequently  be  taken 
not  to  bring  undue  pressure  on  the  part. 

Sometimes  the  saddle  or  harness  will  abrade  the  skin.  If  not 
attended  to,  these  "  galls  "  may  run  into  ulcers.  As  soon  as 
observed,  the  saddle  or  harness  should  be  shifted  so  as  not  to  rub 
on  the  sore  spot.  If  the  skin  has  not  been  broken,  it  may  be 
hardened  by  rubbing  with  a  weak  solution  of  salt  and  water.  If 
a  scab  be  rubbed  partly  off,  trim  away  the  edges,  and  if  necessary, 
poultice  it  until  it  all  comes  away. 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  351 

In  warm  weather  the  woolen  saddle  blanket  produces  much 
heat,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  cool  off  the  horse  before  ex- 
posing the  back.  This  will  tend  to  reduce  swellings  arising  from 
ill-fitting  saddles.  The  back  should  be  carefully  examined  when 
the  saddle  is  removed,  and  the  salt  and  water  immediately  applied 
to  any  swelling.  If  there  is  no  abrasion,  massage  treatment  will 
be  beneficial.  If  the  skin  has  been  rubbed  off  and  a  raw  spot 
formed  it  should  be  treated  with  cosmoline,  or  carbolized  oil.  The 
"  white  lotion,"  composed  of  one  ounce  sulphate  of  zinc,  one 
ounce  acetate  of  lead,  and  one  quart  of  water,  is  a  valuable  dress- 
ing for  sore  backs.  If  necessary  to  continue  the  horse  in  use,  the 
open  wound  should  be  covered  with  cosmoline,  and  if  it  is  possible 
to  remove  part  of  the  load  it  should  be  done,  and  a  hole  cut  in 
the  blanket  as  before  mentioned. 

In  tropical  service,  sores,  abrasions  and  wounds  are  encountered 
in  comparatively  large  numbers.  In  addition  to  the  lotions  and 
powders  prescribed  in  the  chapter  on  veterinary  supplies,  several 
dusting  powders  have  been  found  valuable  in  the  Philippines. 
Among  the  best  of  these  for  open  wounds  is  one  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  alum,  sulphur  and  charcoal.  Another  is  composed 
of  one  part  iodoform  and  eight  parts  tannic  acid. 

FLESH  WOUNDS. — These  may  be  gunshot ;  incised  or  clean  cut ; 
lacerated,  where  the  skin  is  torn  and  broken,  with  edges  more  or 
less  ragged  and  uneven ;  punctured,  or  those  whose  depth  is  much 
greater  than  the  entrance  aperture  ;  and  contused  wounds,  or  those 
produced  by  concussion  without  perforation  of  the  skin.  They 
are  more  or  less  the  result  of  accident,  except  those  inflicted  in 
battle. 

There  is  a  greater  disposition  in  the  horse  than  in  man  to  sup- 
purative  action.  Wounds  of  any  extent  seldom  heal  completely 


352  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

in  the  horse  by  direct  union  or  by  adhesion.  In  all  wounds  it  is 
an  object  of  much  importance  to  keep  the  parts  in  a  state  of  rest. 
In  some  parts  a  certain  degree  of  motion  cannot  be  avoided,  but 
an  endeavor  should  be  made  to  lessen  it  as  far  as  possible.  In 
some  cases  the  animal  will  have  to  be  tied  up  to  prevent  his 
moving,  and  in  others  a  cradle  will  be  needed  to  prevent  his 
gnawing  the  wound  with  his  teeth. 

Wounds  healed  by  granulation  must  fill  up  from  the  bottom 
gradually,  and  they  should  be  prevented  from  closing  outside. 
This  may  be  done  by  inserting  a  piece  of  dry  lint  or  tow  between 
the  edges  of  the  wound.  For  wounds  to  be  healed  by  granulation 
there  is  no  better  dressing  than  lint  steeped  in  cold  water.  This 
may  be  covered  with  oil  silk,  to  retain  the  moisture.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  infection  of  wounds.  Antiseptic 
dressings  should  be  used  on  unclean  wounds. 

Unhealthy  granulations  or  proud  flesh,  must  be  kept  in  check 
by  application  of  some  caustic,  such  as  sulphate  of  copper,  nitrate 
of  silver,  or  chloride  of  zinc. 

Sutures  are  useful  in  bringing  together  the  edges  of  the  skin 
in  parts  where  there  is  but  litle  flesh,  such  as  on  the  forehead  and 
the  nose,  but  they  do  not  answer  so  well  for  fleshy  parts,  where 
the  needful  apposition  of  the  parts  is  best  maintained  by  bandages. 

Sutures  are  best  applied  by  means  of  a  curved  needle.  Inter- 
rupted sutures  answer  better  than  continuous  ones.  The  twisted 
suture,  made  by  two  needles  and  a  skein  of  silk  twisted  over  them, 
answers  very  well  in  small  incised  wounds. 

Bandages  should  be  adjusted  very  evenly,  and  not  so  tight  as 
to  obstruct  circulation.  When  circumstances  admit  of  it,  the 
bandage  should  be  applied  above  and  below,  but  not  over  the 
wound.  lodoform  or  acetanilid  should  be  dusted  over  the  wound 
before  the  bandage  is  applied. 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  353 

If  there  is  any  hemorrhage  it  should  be  stopped  at  once  by  the 
application  of  styptics,  cold  or  pressure.  Oakum  or  tow  bound 
over  a  wound  will  often  stop  hemorrhage. 

In  the  general  treatment  of  wounds,  attention  should  first  be 
directed  to  cleansing  the  injured  parts  from  all  foreign  bodies, 
by  allowing  lukewarm  water  to  fall  in  a  stream  over  it,  one  per 
cent  of  carbolic  acid  being  added  to  the  water.  Abraded  surfaces 
should  be  touched  as  little  as  possible.  Splinters,  gravel,  and  all 
foreign  substances,  if  not  too  deeply  imbedded,  may  be  removed 
with  forceps. 

GUNSHOT  WOUNDS. — If  a  wound  has  been  made  by  a  bullet,  a 
careful  examination  should  be  made  to  ascertain  if  the  ball  has 
passed  through  or  out  of  the  body.  If  not,  the  probe  should  be 
introduced,  and  if  located  it  should  be  cut  out  if  possible.  Some- 
times a  ball  may  be  so  lodged  that  it  cannot  be  removed,  and  it 
may  become  encysted  arid  remain  without  giving  rise  to  any  in- 
convenience. It  is  often  difficult  to  locate  a  bullet,  as  it  is  very 
readily  deflected  by  resistances  met  with  after  entering  the  body. 
Should  bones  be  struck  by  a  ball,  they  are  frequently  shattered 
and  splintered  to  such  an  extent  as  to  warrant  having  the  animal 
destroyed. 

Apply  hot  fomentations,  or  poultices  to  which  carbolic  acid 
has  been  added,  to  the  wound  until  suppuration  has  been  fairly 
established.  Should  pus  accumulate  in  the  tissues,  openings  must 
be  made  at  the  most  dependent  parts  for  its  escape. 

INCISED  WOUNDS. — Under  this  class  come  those  made  by  some 
sharp  instrument  or  body.  The  edges  of  the  wound  are  smooth,- 
as  though  cut  with  a  knife.  If  they  occur  in  fleshy  parts,  and 
blood  vessels,  tendons  or  joints  are  not  injured,  they  soon  recover, 
often  with  little  or  no  special  treatment.  Bleeding  is  more  apt 
23 


354  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

to  occur  in  wounds  of  this  kind  than  any  other.  If  from  arteries, 
the  blood  is  bright  red  or  scarlet  in  color,  and  flows  in  jets  or 
spurts;  if  from  veins,  it  is  darker,  and  the  flow  is  regular. 
If  the  bleeding  is  from  an  artery,  pressure  should  be  applied 
between  the  wound  and  the  heart ;  if  from  a  vein,  between  the 
wound  and  the  extremities.  The  bleeding  stopped,  the  wound 
should  be  cleansed,  but  an  incised  wound  should  never  be  rubbed 
with  any  coarse  substance. 

If  the  wound  is  parallel  to  the  muscular  fibers,  it  does  not  open 
to  any  extent,  but  if  the  incision  be  across  the  muscles,  gaping 
ensues.  In  the  former  case  stitches  may  be  taken  to  hold  the 
parts  together ;  in  the  latter  a  properly  applied  bandage,  bringing 
the  edges  of  the  wound  together,  is  preferable.  The  bandage 
should  be  applied  so  as  to  encourage  union  from  the  bottom,  and 
prevent  accumulation  of  pus.  An  antiseptic  wash  should  be  ap- 
plied, and  if  necessary,  the  wound  may  be  gently  cleaned  with  a 
soft  sponge,  and  castile  or  carbolic  soap  and  hot  water.  Meddling 
with  and  frequent  dressings  of  such  wounds  do  more  harm  than 
good. 

LACERATED  AND  CONTUSED  WOUNDS. — These  may  be  described 
together,  although  in  contused  wounds  there  is  no  break  of  the 
skin.  Lacerated  wounds  are  usually  also  bruised  or  contused  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  Such  wounds  may  not  at  first  seem  as 
serious  as  incised  wounds,  but  they  are  commonly  very  much 
more  so.  In  severe  contusions,  infiltration  of  blood  takes  place 
into  the  surrounding  tissues ;  mortification  follows,  often  involving 
deeper  seated  structures,  and  resulting  in  abscesses. 

In  lacerated  wounds  the  amount  of  hemorrhage  is  generally 
small ;  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  ragged  and  uneven.  These 
wounds  are  commonly  produced  by  some  blunt  object,  as  where 


DISEASES    AND    INJURIES  355 

a  horse  runs  against  fence  posts,  corners  of  buildings,  trees,  wire 
fences,  etc. 

After  a  thorough  exploration,  such  wounds  should  be  carefully 
fomented  with  warm  water,  to  which  has  been  added  three  parts 
of  carbolic  acid  to  one  hundred  of  water.  Free  exit  for  pus  must 
be  secured.  If  the  orifice  is  found  to  be  too  high,  or  if  pus  is 
found  to  be  burrowing  in  the  tissues,  an  opening  low  enough  to 
drain  it  must  be  made. 

There  are  usually  soreness  and  considerable  inflammation  in 
lacerated  wounds,  and  warm  linseed  poultices  may  be  used  effec- 
tively in  many  cases. 

PUNCTURED  WOUNDS. — These  are  produced  by  the  penetration 
of  a  pointed  substance,  sharp  or  blunt,  such  as  a  thorn,  fork  or 
nail,  and  are  apt  to  be  neglected  or  remain  undiscovered,  by 
reason  of  the  opening  being  insignificant  as  compared  to  the  depth. 
They  are  very  common  in  the  feet  and  legs,  and  in  board  stalls 
where  nails  work  loose  from  the  rubbing  and  kicking  of  the  horse, 
they  occur  in  the  face,  neck  and  exposed  parts  of  the  body.  Treat- 
ment is  the  same  as  in  simple  gunshot  wounds. 

Punctured  wounds  in  the  fetlock,  knee,  hock,  stifle  or  other 
joint,  are  always  serious,  and  frequently  result  in  stiffening  or 
anchylosis.  These  must  be  looked  for  in  winter  campaigns,  when 
horses  are  shod  with  ice  calks.  After  the  wound  has  been  exam- 
ined and  cleaned,  if  inflammation  has  not  set  in,  apply  a  canthar- 
ides  blister  over  the  joint.  This  treatment  operates  to  prevent 
ingress  of  air  by  swelling  of  the  skin  and  tissues  underneath, 
and  also  the  superficial  inflammation  established  acts  to  check 
deep-seated  inflammation.  If  the  joint  fluid  is  escaping  it  must  be 
stopped ;  treat  with  cooling  lotions  and  a  paste  of  flour  and  alum, 
or  ten  grains  of  chloride  of  zinc  to  an  ounce  of  water.  Medicine 


356  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

should  be  applied  on  pledgets  of  tow  held  in  place  by  bandages. 
Such  wounds  require  much  time  and  perfect  rest  for  a  cure. 
Slings  are  very  useful  in  many  cases. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  in  all  injuries  where  the  true  skin  is 
destroyed  it  is  not  reproduced.  Its  place  is  supplied  by  a  cicatrix, 
which  differs  from  true  skin  in  not  containing  hair  follicles. 

SPRAINS. — The  muscles,  tendons  and  ligaments  are  all  subject 
to  over-strain,  producing  inflammation  sometimes  of  a  serious 
character.  The  sprain  may  arise  from  over-work,  a  slip  or  a  fall, 
and  is  usually  indicated  by  swelling,  heat,  pain  and  loss  of 
function. 

Treatment. — Perfect  rest  in  a  stall  with  a  level  floor.  The 
animal  should  not  be  moved  if  it  can  be  avoided.  Hot  or  cold 
applications  should  be  applied  to  the  injured  parts.  Witch  hazel 
should  be  added  to  cold  water  in  which  bandages  are  saturated. 
The  bandages  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  on  the  injured  parts. 
If  pain  is  severe,  a  warm  application  of  i  quart  of  water  with  4 
ounces  tincture  of  opium,  and  2  ounces  of  acetate  of  lead  added 
should  be  made  several  times  daily.  If  the  parts  remain  large 
and  swollen  after  the  inflammation  is  reduced,  tincture  of  iodine 
should  be  rubbed  in  twice  a  day.  If  this  treatment  fails  to  restore 
the  parts  in  a  reasonable  time,  a  blister  of  I  dram  cantharides,  i 
dram  bromide  mercury,  and  8  drams  cosmoline  or  lanolin  may 
be  applied. 

The  foregoing  descriptions  of  diseases  and  injuries,  and 
methods  of  treatment,  by  no  means  include  all  those  known  to 
veterinary  practice. 


CHAPTER   XV. 
FORAGE. 

Grasses  in  General. — Hay:  Upland;  Lowland;  Wet  Meadow;  Good;  In- 
ferior; Mow-Burnt. — Dust  in  Hay. — Haystacks. — Timothy;  Red  Top; 
Bermuda  Grass;  Orchard  Grass;  Kentucky  Blue  Grass;  Clover; 
Alfalfa;  Buffalo  Grass;  Gramma  Grass;  Gietta  Grass;  Blue  Stem; 
Bine  Joint;  Fodder  or  Roughness. — Weight  and  Measurement  of 
Hay.— Oats. — Corn. — Barley. — Bran. — Palay. — Allowance  of  Forage 
for  Public  Animals.— Standard  Weights. 

Grasses  in  general  are  of  greater  economic  importance  in  fur- 
nishing food  for  man  and  animals  than  all  other  plants.  The 
truth  of  this  will  be  recognized  when  it  is  considered  that  all  the 
staple  cereals,  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  rice,  oats,  etc.,  are  grasses. 
They  have  been  cultivated  for  a  long  time,  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  they  were  originally  selected  from  wild  forms  on 
account  of  the  size,  quantity  and  nutritive  value  of  their  grains. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  agriculture,  and  agriculture  made  pos- 
sible the  numerical  increase  and  diffusion  of  the  horse,  as  well 
as  the  human  population. 

All  cultivated  grasses  were  once  wild,  and  are  still  so  in  their 
native  homes.  The  selection  and  cultivation  of  particular  kinds 
of  grasses  with  reference  to  their  grazing  qualities,  and  for  the 
production  of  hay,  is  a  comparatively  modern  practice.  In  the 
early  history  of  this  country,  while  the  settlements  were  sparse, 
the  natural  pasturage  was  abundant,  but  in  the  course  of  time  the 
farms  began  to  crowd  each  other,  and  the  open  range  for  feeding 
becoming  restricted,  the  domestication  of  wild  grasses  was 
compulsory. 


Figure  115.     Timothy. 


FORAGE  359 

Perennial  rye  grass  began  to  be  cultivated  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  was  about  the  only  grass  so  cultivated  for 
nearly  one  hundred  years.  Timothy,  or  Herd's  grass,  named  after 
TIMOTHY  HERD,  its  discoverer,  was  cultivated  in  America  about 
1720,  and  was  not  introduced  into  England  for  more  than  forty 
years  after.  This  has  continued  to  be  a  popular  grass  for  hay 
down  to  the  present  time,  and  divides  in  favor  with  blue  grass, 
orchard  grass  and  red  top,  according  to  locality. 

The  variety  of  plants  and  grasses  used  for  forage  is  very  large, 
and  consists  of  both  wild  and  cultivated  species.  The  number  of 
species  of  grass  now  catalogued  is  over  3000. 

The  plains  lying  west  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian,  together 
with  much  mountainous  and  broken  interior  country,  are  un- 
reliable for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  agriculture,  but  are  very 
valuable  for  the  pasturage  afforded  by  the  native  grasses,  which 
are  celebrated  for  their  rich,  nutritious  properties,  ability  to  with- 
stand dry  seasons,  and  for  the  valuable  property  of  self-drying  or 
curing  on  the  stalk.  This  property  is  not  possessed  ordinarily 
by  grasses  at  lower  altitudes  than  3000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  "  Bunch  grass  "  is  a  term  used  to  describe  many  of  these 
species  because  of  their  peculiarities  of  growth. 

Hay  is  the  natural  food  of  the  horse,  and  upon  it  alone  he  is 
able  not  only  to  sustain  life,  but  can  at  the  same  time  do  a  fair 
amount  of  work.  It  is  rich  in  materials  for  repairing  waste  of 
the  animal  tissues,  and  aids  .digestion  of  the  more  concentrated 
foods.  It  loses  in  value  the  more  it  is  handled,  because  of  the 
breaking  off  of  the  tender  flowers  and  leaves,  and  for  this  reason, 
when  it  is  necessary  to  transport  it  to  any  distance,  it  should  be 
baled. 

Hay  is  usually  classed  as  upland,  bottom,  or  wet  meadow. 


Figure  116.     Redtop. 


FORAGE  361 

Upland  hay,  which  is  the  best  for  horses,  is  known  generally 
by  the  fineness  and  firmness  of  the  stalks  and  the  narrowness  of 
the  leaves. 

Lowland  hay  is  characterized  by  the  coarseness  of  the  stalks 
and  by  the  broad  leaves  of  its  grasses.  This  hay,  though  coarser, 
is  softer,  less  firm  and  crisp  than  upland  hay,  and  the  color  is 
darker. 

Wet  meadow  hay  is  recognized  by  its  very  coarse,  often  reed- 
like  stalks,  and  by  the  broad,  flag-like  leaves,  and  also  by  the 
admixture  of  water-rushes  and  sedge. 

Good  hay  should  be  moderately  fine,  sweet-smelling,  well  cured, 
and  have  a  good,  fresh  color.  The  flowering  heads  of  the  grasses 
should  be  present.  A  proportion  of  herbage  other  than  grass  is 
desirable,  but  no  weeds.  It  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  matures 
and  before  the  seeds  are  fully  ripe.  Much  judgment  is  necessary 
in  harvesting  and  storing  or  stacking  hay.  Musty  hay  is  not  fit 
for  horses,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  properly  cure  it  before 
it  is  put  in  the  stack  or  barn,  in  order  that  there  should  be  no 
danger  from  heating.  Hay  is  not  improved  by  keeping  over  one 
season. 

Hay  may  be  composed  of  the  very  best  varieties  of  grasses  and 
yet  be  inferior  because  cut  too  late  or  badly  saved.  Hay  is  usually 
cut  late  for  one  of  two  reasons :  the  farmer  either  delays  in  a  dry 
season,  in  hopes  of  securing  a  heavier  yield,  or  the  season  may  be 
so  wet  that  the  cutting  is  deferred  for  fine  weather.  As  the  seeds 
ripen  much  of  the  nutritive  value  of  the  plant  passes  into  the  seeds, 
which  usually  fall  off  as  they  ripen,  and  are  only  valuable  for  re- 
production of  their  kind;  it  is  for  these  reasons  that  hay  should 
be  cut  while  the  plants  are  flowered  and  before  seeds  form. 

Any  considerable  amount  of  rain  falling  on  hay  causes  it  to 


Figure  117.     Bermuda  Grass. 


FORAGE  363 

lose  its  characteristic  odor  and  to  have  a  lusterless,  washed-out 
color,  according  to  the  amount  of  exposure  to  which  it  has  been 
subjected. 

Mow-burnt  hay  is  a  term  applied  to  hay  which  has  heated  in 
the  stack,  either  from  being  stacked  before  thoroughly  cured  or 
whilst  wet  with  dew  or  rain. 

Dust  in  hay  commonly  arises  from  the  hay  having  become 
slightly  damp,  and  afterwards  quickly  dried  without  passing  into 
the  stage  of  mouldiness.  The  apparent  dust  is  the  debris  of  the 
outer  coats  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  which  decay  and  fall  off  in 
the  process  of  heating  which  has  taken  place  as  the  result  of  damp. 
Dust  may  also  arise  from  hay  having  been  overdried  before  being 
stored,  or  from  having  been  much  exposed  to  bad  weather.  In 
any  case  and  from  whatever  cause  it  arises,  it  must  be  regarded 
as  an  unfavorable  feature  in  hay. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  many  climates,  varieties  of  soil, 
geological  formations,  and  variations  in  degree  of  moisture  and 
dryness ;  it  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  no  one  species  of  grass 
can  be  equally  well  adapted  to  growth  for  hay  in  all  parts  of  this 
extensive  territory. 

It  would  require  a  separate  volume  to  describe  all  the  grasses 
and  plants  useful  for  feeding  to  domestic  animals.  A  very  brief 
reference  only  is  made  to  those  in  common  use  for  animals  in  the 
public  service,  and  which  officers  are  called  upon  constantly  to 
inspect  before  purchase  under  contracts. 

In  addition  to  those  mentioned,  the  entire  area  of  the  United 
States,  particularly  the  Western  plains  and  Rocky  Mountain 
regions,  is  more  or  less  covered  with  various  kinds  of  bunch  grass, 
all  very  good  for  pasturage,  and  many  for  hay,  except  the  annuals, 
which,  as  a  rule,  do  not  seem  to  have  sufficient  nutritive  qualities 


Figure  118.     Orchard  Grass. 


FORAGE  365 

for  horses  engaged  in  marching  or  heavy  work.  This  refers  partic- 
ularly to  grasses  which  spring  up  after  rains,  and  grow  rapidly 
to  great  height  in  a  few  weeks. 

Timothy. —  (Figure  115.)  -This  is  extensively  cultivated  as  a 
hay  crop  in  all  the  older  agricultural  sections  of  the  country ;  the 
height  of  the  grass  varies  according  to  soil,  from  one  to  three 
feet ;  it  has  a  fine  seed  top ;  thrives  best  on  moist,  loamy  soil,  of 
medium  tenacity ;  is  not  suited  to  light,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils ;  is 
perennial,  and  yields  as  high  as  four  tons  to  the  acre.  It  is  often 
sowed  with  clover,  and  makes  the  best  hay  for  horses  of  all  known 
grasses. 

Redtop. —  (Figure  116.)  This  is  extensively  cultivated  as  a 
hay  crop ;  the  height  of  the  grass  varies  from  two  to  three  feet ; 
it  makes  a  firm  sod ;  is  a  perennial  grass ;  it  thrives  in  swampy 
meadows  and  is  much  valued  by  dairymen.  It  makes  hay  in  large 
quantities. 

Bermuda  Grass. —  (Figure  117.)  This  is  the  most  valuable 
grass  in  the  South ;  it  spreads  rapidly  by  means  of  its  roots,  and 
is  difficult  to  eradicate  when  once  located;  its  chief  value  is  for 
summer  pasture ;  it  is  much  used  as  a  lawn  grass,  and  for  terraces 
and  embankments;  it  is  affected  but  little  by  droughts,  and  it 
yields  from  a  ton  and  a  half  to  two  tons  per  acre ;  is  a  perennial. 

Orchard  Grass. —  (Figure  118.)  This  is  a  very  popular  grass 
in  the  Eastern  and  Northern  States ;  it  grows  to  a  height  of  three 
feet ;  is  a  perennial ;  is  .adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils,  climates 
and  treatments,  making  -good  winter  pasturage ;  when  cut  for  hay 
it  affords  a  heavy  aftermath ;  it  yields  on  medium  land  from  one 
to  three  tons  of  excellent  hay,  and  is  easily  cured  and  handled. 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass. — (Figure  119.)  There  are  several  well- 
marked  varieties  of  this  grass.  It  is  extensively  used  for  pas- 


Figure  119.     Kentucky  Blue  Grass. 


FORAGE  367 

turage ;  it  does  not  afford  so  heavy  and  profitable  a  hay  crop  as 
some  other  grasses  ;  it  attains  its  highest  luxuriance  and  perfection 
as  a  pasture  grass  over  the  limestone  formation  of  middle  Ten- 
nessee and  Kentucky ;  it  accommodates  itself  to  a  great  variety  of 
soils  and  climates,  and  does  not  run  out  on  good  land ;  no  reason- 
able amount  of  grazing  can  destroy  it ;  it  is  a  perennial. 

Clover. — This  family  embraces  a  large  number  of  plants, 
varying  greatly  in  size  and  quality.  It  is  not  deemed  necessary 
to  illustrate  a  plant  so  familiar  in  Europe  and  America.  The  most 
common  varieties  are  the  red  and  the  small  white  or  Dutch  clover. 

Clover  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  cultivated  grasses,  not 
only  for  feed,  but  as  an  improver  of  the  soil.  It  is  usually  sowed 
in  conjunction  with  some  other  grass.  It  lasts  several  years,  but 
is  frequently  plowed  under  as  a  fertilizer  before  it  runs  out. 

It  is  not  suited  alone  for  grazing,  except  for  a  few  minutes  at 
a  time,  as  it  is  apt  to  bloat  both  horses  and  cattle.  It  yields  about 
two  tons  or  more  to  the  acre,  and  will  grow  best  on  clay  loam, 
although  it  thrives  even  on  sandy  soil. 

Alfalfa. —  (Figure  120.)  This  plant  is  known  in  Europe  as 
Lucerne,  and  has  been  cultivated  for  hay  since  ancient  times.  It 
is  not  so  hardy  as  red  clover,  and  not  adapted  to  cold  climates. 
It  thrives  best  in  a  permeable  soil,  and  is  well  adapted  to,  and 
reaches  its  highest  development  in  the  warm  and  dry  climate  of 
the  Southwest,  where  irrigation  is  used.  Its  roots  sometimes 
penetrate  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  the  soil ;  it  is  best  used  as  a 
soiling  plant,  but  is  much  used  as  hay  in  California,  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  the  far  West  gen- 
erally ;  it  affords  two  or  three  cuttings  a  year,  yielding  two  or 
three  tons  per  acre  at  each  cutting,  and  lasts  without  replanting 
for  some  years ;  it  is  not  well  adapted  to  transportation  owing  to 
brittleness. 


Figure  120.     Alfalfa. 


FORAGE  369 

Buffalo  Grass. —  (Figure  121.)  This  grass  is  extensively  spread 
over  all  the  region  known  as  the  Plains ;  it  is  very  low,  the  bulk 
of  leaves  seldom  rising  more  than  three  or  four  inches  above  the 
ground  ;  it  grows  in  extensive  tufts,  or  patches,  and  spreads  largely 
by  means  of  off-shoots  similar  to  those  of  the  Bermuda  grass ; 
it  formed  the  main  supply  of  food  for  immense  herds  of  buffalo, 
antelope,  and  other  game  which  formerly  existed  in  the  West ; 
next  to  gramma  grass,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  plant  of  the 
region  in  which  it  thrives. 

Gramma  Grass. —  (Figure  122.)  This  is  the  commonest  and  best 
grass  in  the  far  West ;  it  grows  in  small,  roundish  patches,  the 
foliage  being  in  a  dense  cushion,  like  moss ;  the  flowering  stalks 
seldom  rise  over  a  foot  in  height,  and  bear  near  the  top  one  or  two 
spikes  each  about  an  inch  long,  standing  out  at  right  angles ;  when 
much  grazed  these  spikes  are  eaten  off  and  only  the  mats  of  leaves 
are  observable ;  it  is  highly  nutritious,  and  stock  of  all  kinds  prefer 
it  to  any  grass  growing  with  it ;  it  dries  and  cures  on  the  ground 
so  as  to  retain  its  nutritive  properties  in  the  winter.  For  many 
years  after  troops  occupied  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  this  grass 
was  cut  with  hoes  and  used  as  hay,  with  roots  and  dirt  hanging 
to  it ;  the  horses  kept  strong  and  fat  on  it. 

Gictta  Grass. —  (Figure  123.)  This  is  one  of  the  characteristic 
grasses  of  the  arid  districts  of  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
where  it  is  sometimes  erroneously  .called  black  gramma.  It  is 
found  sparingly  in  Colorado  and  Utah.  It  is  relished  by  cattle  and 
horses,  and  is  next  to  the  gramma  in  value  in  those  regions.  Like 
the  gramma  grass,  it  can  only  be  cut  with  hoes,  knives  or  scythes. 

Blue  Stem,  or  Western  Blue  Joint. — (Figure  124.)  This 
species  prevails  on  the  plains  from  Texas  to  Montana,  and  is  well 
known  to  stockmen.  It  is  generally  of  a  light,  bluish-green  color. 
24 


Figure  121.     Buffalo  Grass 


FORAGE  371 

It  is  the  most  prized  of  the  native  grasses,  and  wherever  it  occupies 
a  large  area  exclusively,  as  it  frequently  does,  it  is  cut  for  hay. 
It  does  not  yield  a  great  bulk,  but  its  quality  is  unsurpassed.  In 
the  valleys  and  along  the  streams  it  frequently  forms  large  patches, 
and  grows  thickly  and  abundantly.  This  grass  extends  into  the 
mountain  region,  and  is  common  in  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 

Blue  Joint. —  (Figure  125.)  This  is  a  stout,  tall  grass,  growing 
chiefly  in  wet,  boggy  ground  or  moist  meadows  ;  its  favorite  situa- 
tion is  in  cool,  elevated  regions.  It  prevails  in  all  the  northern 
portions  of  the  United  States  and  in  British  America ;  in  these 
districts  it  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  productive  of  the  indigenous 
grasses.  It  varies  much  in  luxuriance  of  foliage,  according  to 
location ;  it  grows  from  three  to  five  feet  high,  with  leaves  a  foot 
long.  While  not  equal  to  some  upland  grasses,  it  gives  a  larger 
yield,  makes  very  good  hay,  and  is  much  relished  by  horses  and 
cattle ;  is  perennial. 

Where  there  is  any  choice  of  grasses  the  best  should  be  insisted 
upon  for  hay.  What  is  considered  good  in  one  locality  is  often 
regarded  with  contempt  in  others.  The  government  is  frequently 
compelled  to  accept  inferior  hay  in  the  absence  of  any  other  kind. 
Wild  mesquite  beans  were  at  one  time  received  as  forage  in  the 
absence  of  other  available  food  in  Arizona,  and  the  horses  got 
along  very  well,  and  continued  to  do  their  regular  work.  Among 
the  common  grasses  accepted  at  times  for  hay  may  be  mentioned 
white  or  tall  gramma,  crow-foot,  various  reed  grasses,  wild  oats, 
and  several  kinds  of  bunch  grass. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  animals  were  frequently  dependent 
upon  the  broad  leaves  of  the  cornstalk,  called  "  fodder "  or 
"  roughness  "  in  the  South.  When  pulled  off  at  the  right  time 
and  properly  cared  for  it  makes  a  palatable  forage,  but  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  good  timothy  or  other  hay. 


Figure  122.     Gramma  Grass. 


FORAGE  373 

In  the  Philippines  no  hay  is  cured  and  public  animals  are  fed 
partly  on  green  corn  or  sorghum  stalks ;  teosinte,  a  forage  plant 
resembling  corn,  and  sacate  which  is  a  tall  watery  grass  grown 
in  overflowed  land  or  rice  fields.  All  of  these  classes  of  forage 
plants  are  palatable  and  relished  by  the  animals  but  there  is  not 
much  nutriment  in  any  of  them. 

Hay  for  the  army  is  usually  delivered  baled,  or  in  stacks.  Hay 
baled  when  wet  will  rot  just  the  same  as  loose  hay.  A  sufficient 
number  of  bales  should  always  be  opened  to  determine  its  condi- 
tion, unless  a  government  agent  witnessed  the  baling. 

Haystacks  must  be  built  solidly,  neatly  topped,  and  raked  from 
the  peak  down,  to  facilitate  the  shedding  of  water,  otherwise  the 
rain  may  penetrate,  and  not  only  turn  the  hay  black  and  rot  it  in 
places,  but  may  cause  the  entire  stack  to  become  musty  and  worth- 
less. 

Cured  hay  from  the  grasses  herein  described  varies  greatly  in 
weight  per  cubic  foot.  Officers  are  continually  required  to  approxi- 
mate the  amount  of  hay  in  stacks  at  various  military  stations,  and 
the  only  correct  method  of  determining  this  with  any  approach  to 
accuracy,  is  to  cut  from  the  stack  a  sufficiently  large  cubic  section 
to  obtain  a  fair  average  of  the  stack,  and  weigh  it  so  as  to  get  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot ;  the  measured  cubical  contents  of  the  stack 
multiplied  by  the  actual  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  will  give  the  weight 
of  the  stack.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  top  is  lighter  per 
cubic  foot  than  the  lower  portion  of  the  stack,  which  has  been  well 
packed  as  the  stack  was  built  up.  Allowance  must  also  be  made 
for  the  sloping  ends. 

It  will  usually  be  found  more  satisfactory  to  estimate  the  volume 
of  the  solid  stack  separately  from  the  volume  of  the  lighter  and 
peaked  top.  Obtain  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  each  and  multiply 


Figure  123.     Gietta  Grass. 


FORAGE  375 

by  the  volume,  adding  the  two  results  together  for  the  total  weight. 
This  does  not  require  much  time  or  labor,  and  is  infinitely  prefer- 
able to  guess  work. 

Oats  are  the  best  of  all  grains  for  supplying  animals  with 
muscular  tissue,  and  are  easily  digested.  They  should  be  clean, 
plump  and  full  of  flour,  and  have  a  metallic  luster.  It  is  not 
material  whether  they  are  of  the  white  or  black  varieties,  but  they 
should  be  free  from  all  appearance  or  odor  of  mustiness, 
mouldiness  or  sprouting,  for  these  defects  are  productive  of  serious 
digestive  disorders.  In  a  sample  of  oats  the  grains  should  be 
about  the  same  size,  and  there  should  be  no  admixture  of  small 
seeds  of  grass  and  weeds.  Oats  containing  small  pebbles,  grit  and 
dirt,  even  if  otherwise  good,  should  be  rejected  until  cleaned. 

New  oats  have  almost  a  glazed  appearance,  which  is  lost  in  old 
oats,  and  the  former  have  a  fresh,  earthy  odor,  which  disappears  in 
the  latter.  The  taste  of  new  oats  is  fresh  and  somewhat  milky. 
The  beards  are  well  defined  in  new  oats,  but  in  old  oats  they  are 
knocked  off  by  the  friction  of  handling,  being  very  brittle. 

Corn  is  one  of  the  best  foods  for  producing  fat,  but  that  is 
seldom  desirable  in  saddle  horses.  It  is  good  in  cold  climates  on 
account  of  its  heat  producing  qualities.  In  warm  weather  it  readily 
undergoes  fermentation,  causing  derangement  of  digestion,  which 
is  a  prolific  source  of  disease  and  death  in  horses.  This  is  partic- 
ularly the  case  in  early  spring.  It  is  fed  whole  or  crushed,  the 
latter  being  preferable,  particularly  for  old  horses.  It  should  not 
be  fed  mixed  with  other  grains. 

Barley  is  seldom  received  by  the  government,  except  in  the 
Southwest,  where  it  grows  to  perfection  under  irrigation.  The 
animals  there  thrive  upon  it  and  keep  in  good,  hard  flesh  under 
heavy  work.  It  is  frequently  threshed  with  horses  or  sheep,  and 
consequently  very  poorly  cleaned. 


Figure  124.     Blue  Stem,  or  Western  Blue  Joint. 


FORAGE  377 

Bran  is  a  very  valuable  component  of  the  forage  ration.  It  is 
rich  in  muscle-making  constituents,  prevents  constipation  when 
given  as  a  mash,  is  slow  to  ferment,  easy  to  digest,  makes  good 
poultices,  and  is  easy  to  transport,  though  bulky.  It  supplements, 
but  does  not  take  the  place  of  grain. 

Palay,  as  unhulled  rice  is  called  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  was 
the  main  reliance  of  the  cavalry  horses  which  went  out  during  the 
early  days  of  the  insurrection.  The  animals  refused  it  at  first, 
but  they  soon  learned  that  it  contained  the  necessary  qualities  to 
supply  the  nutriment  needed  to  keep  them  up  on  some  of  the 
hardest  marches  of  the  whole  campaign. 

The  forage  supplied  animals  in  the  public  service  varies  some- 
what with  locality.  Hay,  oats,  corn,  bran,  and  sometimes  barley, 
are  the  components  of  the  forage  ration  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  Philippine  Islands,  American  horses  learned  to  eat  unhulled 
rice  (palay)  and  appeared  to  thrive  on  it.  The  native  ponies  are 
fed  on  palay,  tique-tique  (ground  rice)  and  miel,  a  species  of 
coarse  molasses  which  is  poured  over  the  rice  meal.  They  are 
also  fed  large  quantities  of  a  very  watery  'grass  called  sacate. 

The  allowance  of  forage  is  ample  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  and 
where  grazing  is  abundant  and  opportunity  is  afforded  the  animals 
to  avail  themselves  of  it,  a  portion  of  the  allowance  can  be  saved. 

The  forage  allowance  is  fourteen  pounds  of  hay  per  day  for 
each  horse  and  mule,  and  one  hundred  pounds  of  straw  for  bed- 
ding for  each  animal  per  month.  Grain  is  issued  at  the  rate  of 
nine  pounds  a  day  for  mules  and  twelve  for  horses.  In  special 
cases  of  exposure,  when  the  necessities  of  the  service  demand 
an  increase,  three  pounds  additional  grain  may  be  authorized  for 
each  animal  daily.  The  allowance  for  native  Philippine  ponies  is 
thirty-three  pounds  of  green  forage  and  when  this  cannot  be  ob- 
tained ten  pounds  of  hay  and  five  pounds  of  oats. 


Figure  125.     Blue  Joint. 


FORAGE  379 

In  some  portions  of  the  Philippine  Islands  public  animals  are 
subsisted  on  palay,  native  grasses,  and  green  corn  stalks.  In 
other  localities  the  grass  is  very  inferior,  possessing  little  or  no 
nutriment,  thus  necessitating  the  transportation  of  hay,  which  is 
a  very  expensive  item. 

When  from  any  cause  it  becomes  impracticable  to  supply  full 
forage  to  public  animals,  a  reduction  is  made  by  order,  to  affect 
all  alike. 

There  is  no  government  standard  weight  of  grain  per  bushel. 
Grain  is  usually  contracted  for  by  the  hundred-weight,  and  by 
the  ton  of  2240  pounds,  or  by  the  hundred-weight. 

In  a  majority  of  States  the  weights  per  bushel  are  as  follows : 
Shelled  corn,  fifty-six;  on  the  cob,  seventy;  barley,  thirty-eight, 
and  oats,  thirty-two  pounds ;  bran  not  less  than  twenty  pounds. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
TRANSPORTATION  OF  HORSES  BY  RAIL  AND  AT  SEA. 

Transportation  of  Horses  by  Rail. — Modern  Cars. — Inspection  of  Cars. — 
Detachments  Accompanying  Horse  Trains. — Implements  to  be  Car- 
ried.— Methods  of  Loading. — Portable  Ramps. — Expedients  for  Un- 
loading.— Details  of  Loading  Car. — Watering  and  Feeding. — Unload- 
ing.— Transportation  of  Horses  at  Sea. — Character  of  Ships  Required. — 
Interior  Fittings. — Use  of  Slings  and  Breast  Straps. — Manner  of 
Feeding. — Ventilation  and  Lighting. — Gangways. — Drinking  Water. — 
Hospital  Accommodations. — Forage  Allowance. — Care  of  Animals. — 
Policing  and  Disinfecting  Ship. — Unloading. — British  Remount  Opera- 
tions in  United  States. 

With  the  advent  of  trunk  lines  a  steady  improvement  in  the 
character  of  stock  cars  took  place,  and  now,  were  it  not  for  local 
laws  which  require  animals  passing  through  various  states  to  be 
unloaded  at  frequent  intervals,  it  would  be  possible  to  ship  a 
regiment  of  cavalry  across  the  continent  in  a  week  without  mate- 
rial discomfort  or  injury.  The  modern  stock  car  is  arranged  so 
that  animals  may  be  fed  and  watered  en  route,  and  the  only  source 
of  trouble  lies  in  the  danger  of  fire  from  feeding  hay.  No  hay  or 
straw  for  bedding  should  be  allowed  on  the  floors  of  stock  cars, 
for  once  on  fire  the  animals  would  be  lost  before  any  relief  could 
be  afforded. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  cars  used  for  transportation  of  horses, 
varying  from  the  common  stock  car,  about  thirty  feet  long,  to  the 
palace  stock  car,  thoroughly  equipped  for  the  comfort  and  safety 
of  horses.  The  small  cars  have  a  capacity  to  accommodate  sixteen 
and  the  larger  cars  about  twenty  horses.  Sometimes  when  the 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA  381 

exigency  is  great,  the  common  stock  cars  are  used,  but  if  the 
journey  is  to  be  an  extended  one,  and  particularly  when  the 
animals  are  to  be  put  immediately  in  service,  none  but  cars  proper- 
ly equipped  with  hay  racks  and  water-troughs  should  be  accepted. 

Before  loading  public  animals  every  car  should  be  carefully 
inspected  to  see  if  it  is  in  good  repair  throughout.  Projecting 
nails,  bolts  and  splinters,  loose  boards,  broken  fixtures  on  the  hay- 
racks, doors  or  water-troughs,  all  mean  liability  to  injury  and 
discomfort  for  the  animals.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  transporta- 
tion companies  to  bid  lower  for  government  service  than  the  tariff 
rates,  which  results  in  inferior  service  unless  the  utmost  care  is 
observed  by  commanding  officers  or  quartermasters. 

If  the  animals  are  shipped  in  separate  trains  from  the  troops, 
which  is  generally  the  case,  selected  detachments  should  accom- 
pany the  horses.  The  men  should  be  carefully  instructed  as  to 
watering  and  feeding  en  route,  and  all  the  appliances  of  the  partic- 
ular class  of  cars  supplied  should  be  explained  to  them  in  detail. 
Water  buckets,  lanterns,  hatchets  and  a  hard-wood  or  iron  bar 
should  be  supplied  each  train.  Water  can  be  supplied  in  the 
troughs  to  the  horses  on  either  side  of  the  door,  but  in  the  usual 
type  of  stock  car  there  is  no  means  of  watering  the  horses  in  the 
center  opposite  the  door  except  by  means  of  buckets.  Lanterns 
are  necessary  at  every  stop  to  examine  the  cars  to  see  if  any  ani- 
mals are  down,  in  which  case  the  car  must  be  entered  at  once  and 
the  animal  restored  to  his  feet,  else  he  may  be  maimed  or  killed 
in  a  short  time.  Not  infrequently  a  horse  will  kick  or  push  his 
foot  through  between  the  slats  and  a  bar  must  be  used  quickly  to 
break  the  slat  before  the  animal  is  disabled  by  his  efforts  to  free 
himself.  The  hatchets  can  be  used  for  the  same  purpose  and  to 
drive  in  projecting  nails  or  make  minor  repairs. 


382  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

Public  horses  and  mules  should  be  accustomed  to  loading  and 
unloading  in  all  sorts  of  places  and  under  varying  conditions,  for 
their  own  training  as  well  as  for  instruction  of  the  men.  At  stock- 
yards, where  many  chutes  are  available,  it  is  a  very  simple  matter 
to  load  a  large  command  with  security  and  dispatch,  but  unfor- 
tunately under  war  conditions  such  facilities  do  not  usually  exist 
where  and  when  most  wanted.  If  chutes  or  gangways  are  not 
available,  the  cars  should  be  run  alongside  of  freight  platforms, 
which  usually  have  ramps  at  one  or  both  ends.  In  this  way  the 
animals  can  be  led  in  or  out  of  as  many  cars  as  can  be  side- 
tracked at  the  platform,  and  by  a  little  use  of  a  switch  engine  a 
whole  train  can  be  loaded  or  unloaded  in  a  few  minutes. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  devise  expedients  for  loading  and  un- 
loading. The  easiest  and  safest  plan  is  to  provide  portable  ramps 
which  can  be  carried  in  the  forage  cars  or  on  top  of  the  stock 
cars.  A  number  of  portable  ramps  have  been  devised,  varying  in 
form  from  a  simple  inclined  plane  of  two-inch  oak  planks,  with 
hard-wood  cross  cleats,  to  complicated  gangways  with  trussed  side 
rails,  of  sufficient  height  to  prevent  horses  from  turning  around  or 
jumping  off.  The  essential  elements  of  all  portable  ramps  are 
that  the  length  should  be  sufficient  to  allow  the  horses  to  walk  up 
or  down  without  depending  entirely  on  the  cleats  and,  at  the  same 
time,  not  long  enough  to  bend  excessively.  It  is  usual  to  stiffen 
the  floor  by  trestles  held  in  place  underneath  the  ramp  by  cleats 
on  the  bottom  of  the  floor  boards.  If  the  floor  boards  are  not 
firmly  fastened  together,  then  each  board  must  have  a  grip  iron 
to  hook  to  the  iron  door-rail  or  over  a  cross-beam  laid  on  the  car 
floor.  As  an  additional  precaution,  stakes  should  be  driven  in  the 
ground  at  the  end  of  the  ramp  to  stiffen  it,  and  if  the  earth  is 
soft  a  cross  board  should  be  laid  underneath  the  ground  end  of 
the  ramp. 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA  383 

Sometimes  a  command  is  ordered  to  unload  at  a  distance  from 
any  station.  In  the  absence  of  portable  ramps  the  train  may  be 
run  into  a  low  cut  and  the  banks  shoveled  down  against  the  cars 
sufficiently  to  jump  the  horses  out.  This  is  a  very  unsatisfactory 
method,  as  the  track  must  be  cleared  before  the  train  can  be  moved. 
If  baled  hay  is  carried  on  the  train  a  platform  can  be  readily 
improvised,  and  by  breaking  a  few  bales  a  ramp  can  be  prepared 
down  which  the  horses  may  be  led  in  comparative  safety.* 

The  car  should  be  well  cleaned  before  loading  the  animals. 
Fresh  sawdust  or  sand  may  be  spread  on  the  floor,  but  not  straw. 
Men  thoroughly  accustomed  to  horses  should  be  assigned  to  each 
car.  The  horses  should  be  led  quietly  to  the  car  door  and  turned 
over  to  the  men  detailed  to  do  the  loading.  The  horses  are  led  in, 
alternate  animals  being  taken  to  opposite  ends  of  the  cars.  As 
many  animals  as  possible  should  be  put  in  the  car  unless  the 
weather  should  be  very  hot.  To  accomplish  this  and  to  better 
utilize  the  hay-racks  and  water-troughs,  the  alternate  animals 
should  be  faced  in  opposite  directions.  The  halters  should  be 
removed  from  all  but  fractious  horses  and  those  difficult  to  halter. 
The  animals  which  stand  opposite  the  door  should  be  the  last  put 
in,  and  only  gentle  horses  should  be  put  in  that  position  because 

*  Upon  one  occasion  the  author  was  sent  under  rush  orders  with  a 
troop  of  cavalry  in  Arizona  to  the  end  of  the  Southern  "Pacific  Railroad, 
then  under  construction.  The  train  was  stopped  in  rear  of  the  construction 
party  in  the  Sulphur  Springs  Valley,  on  a  plain  devoid  of  even  underbrush. 
It  was  necessary  to  unload  at  once  to  join  a  command  in  pursuit  of  Indians. 
Only  a  small  quantity  of  hay  had  been  put  on  the  train  for  one  day's 
forage.  With  considerable  labor,  enough  cross-ties  were  gathered  together 
to  build  a  crib  work  platform,  against  which  other  ties  were  piled  so  as  to 
make  a  series  of  steps.  Loose  hay  was  spread  over  the  steps  and  the  little 
"  broncho "  horses,  on  which  the  regiment  was  then  mounted,  scrambled 
down  like  so  many  goats  and  without  accident. 


384  HORSES,   SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 

the  door  must  be  opened  to  supply  them  with  water,  and  to  feed 
them  from  nose  bags. 

There  should  be  no  unnecessary  noise  or  confusion  and  the 
animals  should  follow  one  another  at  intervals  just  sufficiently  long 
to  admit  of  the  halter  being  removed  from  the  horse  which  pre- 
cedes, before  the  following  one  enters.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
two  men  work  together  loading  each  end,  as  each  horse  must  be 
held  until  the  following  horse  arrives  to  prevent  any  from  turning 
around.  Sometimes  an  animal  will  resist  loading.  Many  of  them 
may  be  made  to  move  forward  by  keeping  them  close  to  the  pre- 
ceding animal.  If  necessary,  the  animal  may  be  forced  in  by 
pushing  or  by  putting  a  rope  around  his  hind  quarters  and  drawing 
him  in.  With  a  little  training  both  men  and  horses  soon  become 
accustomed  to  the  details  of  loading  and  it  progresses  rapidly. 
The  closed  door  should  be  securely  fastened  before  loading,  and 
when  the  car  is  full  the  door  through  which  the  horses  have 
entered  should  be  fastened  likewise. 

Car  floors  get  very  slippery,  but  if  closely  packed  the  animals 
assist  one  another  in  keeping  their  feet.  It  is  seldom  convenient 
to  shoe  horses  with  calks  to  prevent  them  from  slipping.  Besides, 
horses  that  are  rough  shod  are  apt  to  seriously  injure  others  by 
stepping  on  them  when  jarred  by  the  sudden  starting  or  stopping 
of  the  train.  Valuable  animals  or  those  which  are  sick  or  disabled 
should  not  be  put  in  with  other  animals.  If  necessary  to  ship  them, 
temporary  stalls  should  be  constructed  in  the  ends  of  the  cars  to 
prevent  them  from  being  jammed  by  the  other  animals. 

Watering  and  feeding  depend  much  upon  the  conditions  under 
which  the  movement  is  being  made.  If  stations  are  convenient 
and  time  admits,  animals  should  be  fed  and  watered  in  the  morning 
after  daylight  and  in  the  evening  before  dark.  If  the  weather  be 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL   AND   AT   SEA  385 

very  warm  and  the  roadbed  dusty,  a  third  watering  should  take 
place  at  noon.  If  there  is  no  special  haste,  animals  should  be  un- 
loaded as  nearly  as  practicable  after  each  twenty-four  hours  of 
travel.  In  good  weather,  if  the  horses  are  not  to  be  used  im- 
mediately after  unloading,  and  if  the  cars  are  such  that  the  ani- 
mals can  be  conveniently  fed  and  watered,  unloading  need  not  take 
place  at  such  frequent  intervals.  Unloading  should  be  accom- 
plished in  the  reverse  manner  of  loading.  The  halters  should  be 
put  on  quietly  and  the  animals  opposite  the  door  led  out  first,  the 
remaining  animals  being  led  to  the  doorway  alternately  from  the 
two  ends  of  the  car  and  delivered  to  men  waiting  to  lead  them 
down  the  ramps  or  to  the  platform.  When  horses  are  loaded  or 
unloaded  direct  from  station  platforms,  great  care  must  be  used  to 
prevent  the  animals  from  crowding  and  slipping  off  the  movable 
gangplanks  or  between  the  cars  and  the  platform.  Circumstances 
and  good  judgment  must  govern  in  this  as  in  everything  else 
connected  with  the  successful  and  economical  management  of 
cavalry. 

TRANSPORTATION   OF   HORSES  AT   SEA. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Spain  there  was  no  record  of 
previous  experience  available  as  to  the  transportation  of  animals 
in  large  numbers  on  long  sea  voyages.  Very  little  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  transporting  cavalry  regiments  to  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico,  but  much  doubt  existed  as  to  the  possibility  of  safely  ship- 
ping horses  and  mules  on  the  long  voyage  to  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  for  a  time  it  looked  as  if  the  fighting  would  all  have 
to  be  done  by  dismounted  men,  unless  animals  could  be  procured 
from  Australia. 

Notwithstanding  the  expense  and  apparent  difficulties,  the  neces- 
sities of  the  situation  demanded  that  the  effort  be  made,  and  al- 
25 


386 


HORSES,   SADDLES   AND   BRIDLES 


though  some  animals  have  been  injured  and  others  lost,  the  expe- 
rience gained  has  been  valuable,  not  only  to  the  American  army, 
but  to  all  others.  With  modern  equipments,  barring  unusual 
storms  or  typhoons,  large  numbers  of  animals  can  be  safely  and 
expeditiously  transported  for  thirty  or  forty  days  at  sea,  and 
delivered  in  condition  for  work  after  a  brief  rest. 


Figure  126.     Showing  construction  and  bracing  of  stalls. 

The  experience  gained  teaches  that  ships  for  transportation  of 
animals  should  be  large  and  fitted  with  bilge  keels.  Before  fitting 
up  the  interior,  false  decks  should  be  laid  throughout  that  portion 
of  the  ship  to  be  used  by  the  horses.  The  structural  strength  of 
the  interior  fittings,  stanchions,  stalls,  etc.,  should  be  of  the 
strongest  character,  all  properly  braced  and  bolted,  so  that  there 
may  be  no  possibility  of  timbers  becoming  loosened  and  injuring 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA  387 

animals  during  rough  weather  (figure  126).  The  stalls  should  be 
constructed  athwart  the  vessel,  so  as  to  form  a  system  of  trusses 
and  give  united  strength  to  the  whole  system.  The  stanchions  of 
the  stalls  should  be  strong,  mortised  into  the  floor  and  securely 
bolted  over  head.  It  should  be  remembered  that  even  in  a  moder- 
ate storm  the  weight  of  the  animals  will  be  thrust  against  the 
stanchions  and  if  they  give  way,  it  means  disaster  to  the  living 
cargo.  A  passage  of  about  three  feet  in  width  should  be  left  at 
the  ends  of  the  rows  of  stalls  in  each  compartment,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, in  rear  of  the  stalls,  along  the  sides  of  the  ship.  This  enables 
the  attendants  to  promptly  clean  out  the  stalls  and  permits  of  the 
animals  being  led  through  the  passages  in  calm  weather  to  change 
their  location  and  for  exercise.  After  various  trials  as  to  char- 
acter and  size  of  stalls,  it  was  found  that  two  feet  four  inches  in 
width  by  not  less  than  six  feet  four  inches  in  length,  with  sides 
boarded  to  a  height  of  four  feet  four  inches  gave  the  most  satis- 
factory results.  The  sides  should  be  made  of  four  planed  boards, 
ten  inches  wide,  with  three-inch  spaces  between  the  boards  and  a 
similar  space  between  the  bottom  board  and  the  floor,  for  better 
circulation  of  air.  Four  or  five  hard-wood  cleats  should  be  nailed 
on  the  floor  of  the  stall  to  prevent  the  animals  from  slipping. 

When  the  first  shipments  were  made,  in  deference  to  existing 
knowledge  and  theories,  the  system  of  tricing  up  the  animals  in 
the  stalls  by  means  of  slings  was  tried.  Heavy  breast  boards  were 
put  in  front  of  the  animals,  to  prevent  them  from  plunging  for- 
ward out  of  the  stalls  in  rough  weather,  and  feed  boxes  were 
hung  on  the  outside  of  the  breast  boards  (figure  127).  So  many 
animals  were  badly  bruised  against  the  breast  boards  that  they 
were  abandoned,  and  broad  canvas  straps  or  guards  were  substi- 
tuted. The  breast  straps  should  be  made  of  hemp  canvas,  about 


388 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


eight  inches  wide,  with  a  spreading  stick  and  two  grummets  at 
each  end.  The  canvas  should  be  heavy  and  stitched  to  strengthen 
the  edges.  Ropes  should  be  passed  through  the  grummets  to  tie 
the  breast  straps  to  the  stanchions.  By  placing  a  smaller  strap 
over  the  animal's  neck  and  attaching  it  to  the  breast  strap  in  the 
same  manner  that  a  light  buggy  harness  is  arranged,  the  halter 


Figure  127.     Shewing  transport  fitted  with  breast  boards  and  feed  boxes. 

ropes  may  then  be  adjusted  in  length  so  as  to  allow  the  animals 
considerable  room  for  swaying  with  the  vessel. 

After  much  experience  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  it  was  found 
that  the  animals  got  their  "  sea  legs  "  much  quicker  by  being 
allowed  to  sway  with  the  motion  of  the  ship,  and  the  tricing-up 
slings  were  abandoned,  except  that  a  few  were  carried  to  support 
weak  or  sick  horses  in  calm  weather.  The  slings  were  responsible 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA  389 

for  intestinal  disorders,  injuries  to  the  sheath  and  other  troubles 
incident  thereto.  During  rough  weather,  the  breast  guards  or 
straps  supported  the  animals  without  bruising  them,  and  in  calm 
weather  could  be  detached  to  allow  the  horses  to  swing  out  in 
front  of  the  stalls. 

The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  that  no  nails  or  projections  of 
any  kind  are  left  about  the  stalls  on  which  an  animal  may  wound 
or  bruise  himself.  When  no  space  is  left  in  rear  of  the  stalls,  as  was 
the  case  in  fitting  up  several  ships,  sheets  of  zinc  nailed  to  the  side 
of  the  ship  in  the  rear  of  the  stalls  will  be  found  efficacious  in 
preventing  the  animals  from  unduly  chafing  their  tails. 

At  first  animals  were  fed  from  feed-boxes  and  mangers  but 
experience  caused  this  method  to  be  abandoned  in  favor' of  feeding 
directly  from  the  deck.  To  provide  for  this,  slats  running  length- 
wise of  the  vessel  were  nailed  to  the  false  deck  in  front  of  the 
stalls  and  the  forage  was  placed  between  them.  The  animals 
appeared  to  thrive  better  when  feeding  directly  from  the  deck,  and 
soon  learned  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  ordinary  motion  of  the 
sea  so  as  not  to  plunge  out  of  their  stalls  when  the  long  halter 
chains  were  attached.  It  was  found  advisable  to  have  both  short 
and  long  halter  chains  or  straps,  because  in  rough  weather  an  ani- 
mal might  be  pitched  forward  while  his  head  was  down  and  be 
jerked  into  a  somersault  by  the  long  halter  chain,  which  it  is 
necessary  to  use  when  feeding  from  the  deck  (figure  128). 

No  detail  can  be  neglected  in  the  transportation  of  animals, 
but  the  item  of  ventilation  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  The 
method  found  most  effective  is  that  used  in  deep  mines — the  com- 
bined blow-in  and  exhaust  system.  By  the  use  of  this  system, 
the  air  may  be  kept  almost  as  pure  in  the  hold  as  between  decks 
above.  If  the  ventilation  in  any  part  of  the  ship  is  not  good,  the 


390 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


animals  should  be  changed  from  time  to  time  to  other  parts,  and 
in  good  weather,  those  animals  which  appear  weak  or  needing 
a  change  should  be  led  up  on  deck  or  to  the  hatchways. 

Every  animal  transport  should  be  provided  with  an  electric  plant 
for  lighting  the  ship  and  for  running  electric  fans  in  the  compart  - 


Figure    128.     Stalls    without   breast   boards.     Slats   arranged    for    feeding 

from  deck. 

ments  occupied  by  animals,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  in  fresh  air 
and  exhausting  foul  air  from  parts  of  the  vessel  not  sufficiently 
ventilated  by  the  windsails  attached  to  the  hatches  and  ports.  The 
windsails,  if  carefully  attended,  supply  the  fresh  air  all  right,  but 
some  other  exits  than  the  hatches  should  be  provided  for  forcing 
out  the  foul  air  which  hangs  under  each  deck.  The  fresh  air 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA  391 

should  enter  at  the  floor  of  each  compartment  and  the  foul  air  be 
exhausted  near  the  top.  Ports  should  be  fitted  with  windscoops. 

No  ship  should  be  used  as  an  animal  transport  which  has  hatch- 
ways too  small  to  admit  of  inclined  gangways  with  landings.  Not 
only  is  this  necessary  for  moving  animals  from  one  compartment 
to  another,  but  also  because  of  the  greater  facility  with  which  the 
animals  may  be  loaded  and  unloaded.  If  the  inclined  gangways 
cannot  be  put  in  through  the  hatches,  the  animals  must  be  loaded 
and  unloaded  in  horse  boxes,  or  slings,  a  very  slow  and  tedious 
process,  particularly  when  resorted  to  for  unloading  at  ports 
without  wharf  accommodations,  or  when  necessary  to  disembark 
on  an  exposed  coast,  as  happened  at  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  various 
points  in  the  Philippine  Islands  (figures  129  and  130). 

An  abundant  supply  of  pure  drinking  water,  not  less  than  ten 
gallons  per  day  for  each  animal,  must  be  provided.  Arrangements 
should  be  made  for  distributing  the  water  to  each  compartment 
through  a  hose  provided  with  a  faucet  at  the  end,  so  that  buckets 
can  be  filled  without  waste.  A  condensing  apparatus  should  form 
part  of  the  equipment  of  each  vessel,  but  for  fear  of  a  break-down 
or  failure  to  furnish  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  an  ample  supply 
should  be  carried  in  the  ballast  tanks.  A  deck  tank  should  be 
provided  into  which  the  water  should  be  pumped  for  distribution, 
by  gravity,  to  the  various  animal  compartments.  Barrels  should 
be  at  hand  in  each  compartment  for  use  in  connection  with  the 
hose  in  the  distribution  to  the  horses.  The  filling  of  buckets  from 
hose  is  a  rather  slow  process,  but  the  water  is  not  wasted  to  such 
an  extent  as  when  dipped  from  barrels  when  the  ship  is  rolling. 
Unless  great  care  is  taken  the  barrels  are  soon  fouled  with  dirty 
buckets. 


392 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


A  small  water-trough,  holding  enough  for  two  animals,  and 
arranged  on  wheels,  as  a  push  cart,  is  preferable  to  buckets.  The 
hose  can  be  constantly  refilling  it,  and  it  avoids  the  difficulty  of 
having  two  horses  trying  to  drink  from  the  same  bucket.  Another 
simple  plan  is  to  carry  "  nests  "  of  assorted  sizes  of  ordinary  zinc 


Figure  129.     Leading  animals  to  the  main  deck. 

washtubs,  which  can  be  placed  on  the  deck  at  each  alternate  head- 
post  so  that  two  horses  can  drink  from  the  same  tub  at  the  same 
time. 

A  room  should  be  provided  for  tools,  instruments  and  horse 
medicines.  Canvas  bags  or  baskets  should  be  provided  for  col- 
lecting manure,  which  should  be  thrown  overboard,  together  with 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT   SEA  393 

the  wet  or  soiled  hay,  which  may  clog  the  scuppers  when  the  decks 
are  washed. 

The  question  of  hospital  accommodations  has  received  much 
consideration.  A  few  large  stalls  near  the  hatchways  will  afford 
opportunities  to  treat  ordinary  cases.  If  the  deck  load  is  restricted, 
as  it  should  be,  to  forage  for  the  first  week  out,  the  space  will  then 
be  available  for  deck  stalls,  which  can  be  quickly  prepared,  and  to 
which  ailing  animals  may  be  taken  for  fresh  air  and  treatment. 
Notwithstanding  that  every  effort  was  made  to  provide  the  best 
patterns  of  large  canvas  slings  heretofore  considered  essential  at 
sea,  they  were  found  to  be  more  injurious  than  beneficial,  and  the 
percentage  of  loss  decreased  directly  as  the  slings  were  discarded. 

The  transport  being  fitted  up  in  accordance  with  approved 
methods,  the  feeding  and  care  of  the  animals  then  devolves  upon 
the  officers  and  men  assigned  to  duty.  Upon  the  manner  in  which 
the  work  is  performed  will  depend  the  success  of  each  voyage  so 
far  as  landing  animals  fit  for  service.  The  transports  are  first- 
class  floating  livery  stables,  and  in  many  voyages  the  percentage 
of  loss  has  been  less  than  would  occur  in  the  same  length  of  time 
if  the  animals  had  been  turned  loose  in  a  pasture  or  corral.  As 
the  government  charters  animal  transports,  the  experience  gained 
cannot  be  made  as  available  as  has  been  the  case  on  the  passenger 
transports  owned  by  the  United  States. 

The  consensus  of  opinion  of  the  officers  who  have  reported  on 
various  voyages,  is  that  a  certain  routine  of  feeding,  watering  and 
care  will  answer  for  the -average  animal  transport  in  ordinary 
weather,  and  that  an  adherence  to  prescribed  rules  will  keep  the 
animals  in  good  condition  for  service.  The  officer  in  charge,  how- 
ever, should  use  his  judgment  when  things  do  not  go  right,  and 
if  it  be  a  question  of  ship  management,  consult  the  captain,  and  if 


394  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

it  pertains  to  the  feeding  and  care  of  the  animals,  or  of  any  indi- 
vidual animal,  such  correction  as  can  be  applied  should  be  done 
whether  specified  in  his  instructions  or  not. 

For  short  voyages  and  where  the  animals  are  to  go  immediately 
on  service,  they  may  be  shod  before  loading.     When  the  voyage 


Figure  130.     Leading  animals  from  the  main  deck  to  lower 
compartments. 

will  occupy  a  month  or  more  it  is  not  desirable  to  shoe,  as  the  hoofs 
will  increase  in  length  to  such  an  extent  in  that  time  that  it  will 
be  necessary  to  replace  the  shoes  after  landing. 

The  day  previous  to  embarkation  the  animals  should  be  fed 
bran  mash.    For  the  first  thirty-six  hours  at  sea  the  full  ration  of 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA  395 

hay  should  be  fed  but  no  grain.  After  this  period,  half  ration  of 
oats  (six  pounds)  should  be  given,  but  if  large  animals  show  signs 
of  losing  flesh,  their  feed  should  be  increased.  It  will  not  do  to 
apply  an  inflexible  rule  to  feeding  animals,  for  a  small  horse  or 
pack  mule  will  keep  fat  on  an  allowance  which  will  cause  the  ribs 
of  a  large  animal  to  show  prominently.  If  the  animals  clean  up  the 
hay  an  extra  allowance  should  be  given  during  the  night.  Bran 
mashes  should  be  given  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  days,  and  if 
intestinal  disorders  follow  the  feeding  of  oats,  a  wet  mixture  of 
bran  and  oats  should  be  tried.  Animals  should  receive  the  usual 
ration  of  salt  in  the  bran  mash.  Carrots  in  small  quantities  may 
prove  beneficial  to  some  animals  whose  appetite  is  not  normal. 

For  the  care  of  the  animals,  it  will  usually  be  found  advisable 
to  divide  the  attendants  into  permanent  squads,  four  or  five  in 
number,  and  allot  to  them  certain  parts  of  the  ship.  If  troops 
travel  with  their  horses,  each  detachment  should  look  after  its  own 
animals.  Ordinarily,  however,  the  attendants  are  civilian  packers, 
teamsters,  or  men  hired  for  the  voyage. 

The  animals  should  be  fed  at  the  usual  hour  in  the  morning, 
soon  after  daylight.  After  the  men  have  been  served  with  breakfast, 
the  policing  of  the  vessel  should  begin  by  removing  all  manure 
and  refuse  hay  (no  bedding  is  used  on  transports)  and  throwing 
it  overboard.  Then,  in  turn,  the  squads  should  have  the  use  of 
the  hose  for  washing  and  scrubbing  the  decks.  After  each  com- 
partment has  been  cleaned,  such  disinfectant  as  may  be  supplied 
should  be  applied  to  the  deck  space  in  front  of  the  stalls  used 
for  feeding  the  animals,  and  to  the  stalls  also.  A  thorough  policing 
should  always  precede  disinfection,  else  the  attendants  may  con- 
ceive the  usual  idea  that  the  odor  of  a  disinfectant  renders  filth 
innocuous.  Vinegar,  creolin,  chloro-naphtholeum,  chloride  of 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

lime  and  carbolic  acid,  constitute  the  usual  disinfectants  supplied. 
On  account  of  its  pungent  odor,  chloride  of  lime  should  not  be 
used  between  decks  when  other  disinfectants  are  at  hand. 

When  the  morning's  work  is  completed,  the  vessel  should  be 
thoroughly  inspected,  particular  care  being  taken  to  see  that  the 
scuppers  are  not  clogged.  Responsibility  should  be  absolute  in 
each  squad,  and  every  dereliction  should  be  fixed  upon  the  indi- 
vidual and  such  deprivation  or  punishment  as  the  neglect  seems 
to  merit  should  be  awarded  by  the  officer  in  charge. 

The  ship's  crew  attends  to  the  sailing  of  the  ship  while  the 
animals  are  cared  for  by  civilians  employed,  or  soldiers  detailed 
for  the  purpose.  It  is  a  disadvantage  to  have  too  many  men,  but 
a  sufficient  number  should  be  taken  to  allow  for  many  to  be  off 
duty  by  reason  of  seasickness  the  first  week  out  of  port.  Some- 
times the  detachment  is  fed  by  the  ship's  cook,  but  on  other 
occasions  galley  room  is  provided  for  cooking.  The  mess  should 
be  carefully  looked  after  to  see  that  the  galley  and  surroundings 
are  kept  clean  and  that  the  food  is  properly  cooked  and  served. 

For  the  whole  cargo  of  animals  there  should  be  one  senior  non- 
commissioned officer,  three  cooks,  one  forage  master,  one  veter- 
inarian and  one  assistant,  and  for  each  one  hundred  animals  there 
should  be  one  non-commissioned  officer  and  fifteen  privates. 
When  the  personnel  consists  of  civilian  employes  a  train  master, 
wagon  masters  and  civilian  teamsters  take  the  places  of  enlisted 
men.  After,  making  details  for  guard,  kitchen  police  and  mess 
attendants  and  the  usual  allowance  for  sickness  each  private  or 
teamster  will  be  required  to  care  for  about  ten  animals.  When 
organized  wagon  and  pack  trains  are  being  transported  with  the 
expectation  of  immediate  field  service  upon  disembarkation, 
teamsters  and  packers  should  accompany  the  trains. 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA 


397 


The  ship  should  be  apportioned  off  so  that  each  non-commis- 
sioned officer  or  wagon- 
master  may  know  exactly 
what  animals  and  space  he 
is  responsible  for,  the  stalls 
being  numbered  for  the 
purpose  of  division.  Each 
non-commissioned  officer 
or  wagon-master  should 
make  his  own  details  for 
guard,  call  his  own  rolls, 
keep  the  forage  record  and 
note  on  a  bulletin-board 
the  sick  animals  and  the 
names  of  the  men  on  guard.  / 


Figure  131.     Unloading  animals,  Ponce,   Porto  Rico. 

The  senior  non-commissioned  officer  or  trainmaster  should  exer- 
cise general  supervision,  keep  the  forage  accounts,  the  morning 


3Q8  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

report  and  be  responsible  to  the  officer  in  charge  that  cleanliness 
and  good  order  are  enforced. 

The  officer  in  charge  should  make  a  general  inspection  three 
times  each  twenty-four  hours.  Neglect  of  duty  or  abuse  of  ani- 
mals should  meet  with  just  and  summary  punishment.  Disputes 
and  misunderstandings  should  be  settled  promptly,  with  dignity 
and  tact,  appealing  to  the  ship's  captain  when  any  of  his  crew  are 
involved. 

Arriving  at  destination,  the  animals  should,  if  possible,  be  un- 
loaded at  a  dock  by  means  of  a  gangway,  the  animals  from  below 
being  led  up  on  the  ramps.  If  there  are  no  ramps  the  unloading 
must  be  by  means  of  slings  or  the  flying  stall,  the  latter  being 
preferable  (figures  131  and  132). 

If  the  animals  must  be  unloaded  into  the  water  to  swim  ashore, 
great  care  should  be  exercised.  If  the  stall  is  used  it  should  have 
sides  high  enough  so  that  the  animal  will  not  try  to  jump  out,  and 
the  floor  should  have  heavy  cleats.  Guy  ropes  should  be  attached 
to  keep  the  stall  from  striking  the  sides  of  the  ship  or  the  hatch 
combing.  Both  ends  of  the  stall  should  be  made  to  open,  for  an 
animal  which  will  balk  at  walking  into  a  box  may  be  coaxed  to 
walk  into  an  open  passage. 

The  bolts  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  doors  may  be  opened 
by  a  line  from  the  ship.  A  line  should  be  attached  to  the  halter  of 
the  animal  in  the  stall,  and  thrown  to  men  in  a  row-boat,  which 
should  lay  to,  near  by,  where  the  stall  will  strike  the  water  when 
lowered.  When  the  door  is  opened  the  stall  should  be  allowed  to 
sink,  the  oarsmen  give  way,  and  the  animal  swims  out,  being 
guided  by  a  man  in  the  stern  of  the  boat  holding  the  halter  rope. 
If  the  water  is  calm  the  animal  may  be  conducted  towards  shore 
and  then  turned  loose  to  make  his  way  in.  If  there  are  breakers 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT    SEA 


399 


the  animal  should  be  conducted  to  shore,  else  in  his  fear  he  may 
turn  and  follow  back  to  the  ship  or  swim  out  to  sea  and  be  lost. 

In  smooth  water  where  a  lighter  can  be  used,  it  is  best  to  con- 
struct a  ramp  leading  from  the  ship  to  the  lighter  ;  this  will  greatly 
hasten  the  unloading  and  save  the  animals  from  risk  or  injury. 


Figure  132.     The  flying  stall. 

Many  of  the  animals  which  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Santiago  in  1898  were  unloaded  directly  into  the  sea  by  means  of 
sliding  ramps  run  out  through  the  side  ports.  The  ramps  were 
arranged  so  that  the  weight  of  the  horse,  as  he  moved  out  from 
the  side  of  the  ship  tilted  the  outer  end  downward,  forcing  the 
animal  into  the  sea,  when  he  made  his  way  to  shore  (figure  133). 


40O 


HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 


The  British  Remount  Service  had  more  experience  in  the 
purchase  and  shipment  of  horses  and  mules  at  sea  during  the  two 
years  of  war  in  South  Africa  than  any  nation  hitherto  known  in 
history.  The  animals  were  purchased  generally  throughout  the 
Western  States,  and  for  the  most  part  concentrated  in  Missouri, 
where  the  British  government  had  a  large  remount  depot.  Here 
the  animals  were  carefully  inspected,  branded  and  subjected  to  the 


Figure  133.     Cavalry  horses  swimming  ashore  at  Santiago. 

mallein  test  for  glanders.  When  in  prime  condition  they  were 
shipped  by  rail  to  New  Orleans  to  the  remount  station,  where 
injured  or  unfit  animals  were  culled  out.  The  ship  being  ready, 
the  animals  were  loaded  with  great  care,  and  everything  possible 
done  to  insure  a  safe  and  speedy  voyage  to  the  distant  theater  of 
war,  to  which  more  than  200,000  animals  were  shipped  after  the 
Boers  took  the  field. 

The  British  methods  differed  slightly  from  the  American,  in- 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    HORSES    BY    RAIL    AND   AT   SEA  46! 

asmuch  as  they  required  the  owners  of  the  vessels  to  fit  them  up 
for  the  transportation  of  animals  and  provide  the  necessary  forage 
and  ustensils,  also  the  foreman  and  attendants  required  for  the 
care  of  the  animals  and  two  carpenters  in  addition  to  the  ship's 
carpenter,  to  keep  the  stalls  in  order.  The  fittings  were  erected 
by  the  owners  from  patterns  and  specifications  provided  by  the 
Remount  Department.  A  gratuity  of  £2  (about  $10)  was  allowed 
on  each  horse,  and  £i  on  each  mule,  landed  in  good  order,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  price  of  freight. 

The  owners  of  vessels  were  required  to  furnish  water,  forage, 
halters,  utensils,  fittings,  ventilation  and  attendants,  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  remount  officer  at  the  port  of  embarkation. 

The  attendants  required  were  I  head  foreman,  3  assistant  fore- 
men and  i  attendant  for  every  15  horses  or  20  mules.  The  articles 
required  to  be  provided  by  each  animal  transport  were  specified 
in  great  detail  in  the  contracts  and  included  all  the  implements 
and  measures  necessary  in  cleaning  and  feeding  the  animals  and 
for  policing  and  ventilating  the  vessel. 


26 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  EXAMINATION  FOR 
SOUNDNESS. 

The  Bars.  This  term  is  used  to  designate  two  entirely  different  parts  of 
the  horse— the  bars  of  the  mouth  and  the  bars  of  the  foot.  The  bars  of 
the  mouth  comprise  the  parts  of  the  lower  jaw,  on  each  side  devoid  of 
teeth  and  lying  between  the  incisor  and  molar  teeth,  where  the  bit  rests. 
The  bars  of  the  foot  consist  of  the  two  horny  portions  starting  from 
each  side  at  the  heel  and  coming  together  under  the  point  of  and  to  a 
certain  extent  enclosing  the  frog. 

Blemish.  A  scar,  condition  or  sign  of  former  disease,  which  may  mar 
the  appearance  without  affecting  the  serviceability  of  the  animal. 

Broken  Knee  or  Capped  Knee.  Injury  to  the  knee  arising  through  a  fall, 
striking  against  the  manger  when  pawing  or  other  accidents  and  usually 
manifested  by  scars  or  swelling. 

Broken  Wind.  Indicated  by  difficulty  of  breathing  and  prolonged  effort 
of  the  abdominal  muscles  in  performing  the  act  of  expiration.  Usually 
accompanied  by  a  hacking  cough. 

Buck  or  Calf  Knee.  A  condition  where  the  front  of  the  fore  leg,  viewed 
from  the  side,  appears  to  curve  to  the  rear,  the  curvature  being  most 
noticeable  at  the  knee. 

Calking.  Injuries  about  the  top  of  the  foot  (coronet),  caused  by  the 
tread  of  another  foot  of  the  horse  on  himself,  or  by  the  shoe  of  another 
animal.  Injury  occurs  most  frequently  when  shoes  are  fitted  with  calks. 

Canker.  Disease  of  the  foot,  principally  of  the  frog  and  sole  due  to  a 
vegetable  parasite  which  thrives  best  in  dampness. 

Capped  Elboiv.  Term  applied  to  an  enlargement  at  the  point  of  the 
elbow.  Frequently  called  shoe  boil  because  usually  due  to  pressure  of  shoe 
when  lying  down. 

Capped  Hock.  Enlargement  at  the  back  (points)  of  the  hock,  arising 
usually  from  bruises  received  in  rubbing  against  the  sides  of  the  stall. 
Swelling  may  be  temporary  but  often  remains  permanent. 

Cinch  Sores.  Sores  under  the  body  in  rear  of  the  elbows.  Usually 
originate  as  shoe  injuries  and  are  continued  and  extended  by  rubbing  of 
the  girth  or  cincha. 

Clicking  or  Forging.  Striking  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  against  the 
bottom  of  the  shoe  of  the  forefoot,  making  a  noise  from  which  the  name  is 
derived. 


GLOSSARY  403 

Cocked  Ankles  or  Knuckling.  A  partial  dislocation  of  the  fetlock  joint, 
causing  the  joint  to  knuckle  or  make  a  convex  angle  to  the  front. 

Contracted  Heels  or  Hoof  Bound.  Atrophy  or  shrinking  of  the  tissues 
of  the  foot  which  dries  out  the  frog  and  draws  the  heels  together.  Usually 
observed  in  fore  feet  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  the  hind. 

Cribber  or  Crib  Biter.  A  horse  addicted  to  the  habit  of  gnawing  the 
wood  work  about  the  stable,  usually  the  manger. 

Curb.  In  a  normal  state  the  back  part  of  the  hind  leg  from  the  point 
of  the  hock  down  to  the  fetlock  should  be  a  straight  line.  When  there  is  a 
bulging  backward  of  this  line  at  the  hock  the  lesion  is  called  curb. 

Defect.  An  abnormal  condition  of  any  part  of  the  horse  which  may 
affect  his  usefulness  and  which  may  or  may  not  be  classed  as  an  abso- 
lute unsoundness. 

Dock.    The  solid  part  of  the  tail. 

Farcy  Buds.  Nodes  which  form  under  the  skin  and  vary  in  size  from  a 
buckshot  to  a  walnut.  They  are  sometimes  called  farcy  buttons. 

False  Quarter.  When  the  coronary  band  at  the  top  of  the  foot,  from 
which  the  crust  or  horn  of  the  hoof  is  secreted,  becomes  involved  in  serious 
inflammation  through  qnittor,  sand  cracks  or  other  injury  or  disease,  the 
secretions  become  arrested  and  a  break  in  the  hoof  wall,  immediately  below 
the  place  of  injury,  occurs,  and  this  complete  and  more  or  less  permanent 
separation  is  called  false  quarter. 

Fistula.  An  ulcerous  sore  on  the  surface,  connected  by  ducts  with  a 
diseased  internal  cavity.  With  horses  the  term  is  appplied  almost  wholly 
to  ulcerous  lesions  of  the  withers. 

Founder  or  Laminitis.  An  inflammation  of  the  sensitive  laminae  of  the 
feet,  with  a  tendency  to  destruction  of  tissues,  causing  stiffness  and  lame- 
ness. Often  results  in  the  formation  of  a  series  or  ridges  or  rings  around 
the  surface  of  the  hoof. 

Grease.  A  disease  of  the  heels  usually  associated  with  a  parasitic  fungus 
and  offensive  discharge. 

Grunting.  A  noise  emitted  by  a  horse  when  suddenly  moved  or  started. 
Usually  indicates  that  the  animal  is  a  roarer  and  probably  unsound. 

Interfering — Speedy  Cut.  A  horse  interferes  when  he  strikes  the  inner 
side  of  the  fetlock  of  either  fore  or  hind  foot,  with  the  corresponding  foot 
of  the  other  side,  causing  a  bruise  or  cut.  When  the  location  of  the  cut  is 
on  the  inside  of  the  fore  leg  near  the  knee  it  is  called  speedy  cut.  Other 
terms  applied  are  brushing  when  the  injury  is  slight  and  cutting  when  it  is 
severe. 

Knee  Sprung  or  Over  in  the  Knees.     A  deformed  articulation  of  the 


404  HORSES,   SADDLES  AND   BRIDLES 

knee  joint  which  causes  the  fore  leg  to  bend  forward  at  the  knee  instead 
of  maintaining  the  usual  vertical  direction  of  the  forearm  and  cannon 
bones,  as  viewed  from  the  side. 

Near  Side.    The  left-hand  side  of  the  horse  facing  with  the  animal. 

Off  Side.    The  right-hand  side  of  the  horse  facing  with  the  animal. 

Overreach.  Overreach  is  where  the  shoe  of  the  hind  foot  strikes  and 
injures  the  heel  or  quarter  of  the  fore  foot;  the  injury  usually  occurs 
to  the  outside  of  the  forefoot,  but  sometimes  comes  squarely  against  the 
heel  and  not  infrequently  with  sufficient  force  to  tear  off  the  fore  shoe. 

Paddling.  The  term  describes  the  peculiar  motion  of  the'  fore  feet,  at 
a  walk  or  trot,  when  instead  of  being  carried  forward  in  a  vertical  plane, 
they  are  thrown  forward  with  a  curved  motion  outside  of  this  plane. 

Parrot  Mouth.  This  exists  where  the  incisor  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw 
project  over  and  in  front  of  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  no  wear  of  the 
teeth  taking  place. 

Poll  Evil.  A  fistula  in  the  poll  or  top  of  the  head  near  or  between 
the  ears. 

Quittor.  This  term  applies  to  several  varieties  of  foot  affections  where- 
in the  tissues  undergo  degeneration,  and  are  eliminated  or  sloughed  off 
by  suppuration.  In  some  forms  it  is  not  inaptly  termed  foot  rot.  Its 
more  common  form  is  a  fistula  of  the  coronet  which  burrrows  into  the 
heels  and  quarters. 

Ring  Bone.  An  ossification  or  bony  tumor  on  or  around  the  pastern 
bones  resulting  from  inflammatory  action. 

Roaring:  Whistling.  Horses  are  sometimes  affected  with  a  chronic 
disease  that  causes  a  loud  unnatural  noise  in  breathing;  such  animals  are 
called  roarers  or  said  to  have  thick  wind.  The  noise  is  made  when  the 
air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs.  Whistling  is  a  shrill  variation  of  the  sound 
emitted  by  a  roarer. 

Sand  Cracks;  Quarter  Cracks;  Toe  Cracks.  A  sand  crack  is  a  fissure 
in  the  horn  of  the  walls  of  the  foot,  and  which  usually  extends  in  the 
direction  of  the  bony  fibers.  When  the  opening  occurs  on  the  side  or 
quarter  of  the  hoof  it  is  called  a  quarter  cryck,  and  when  directly  in  front 
is  called  a  toe  crack.  Sand  cracks  may  involve  only  the  outer  parts  of 
the  wall  or  they  may  be  deep  and  involve  the  whole  thickness  of  the 
wall  and  the  soft  tissues  beneath. 

Scratches  or  Cracked  Heels:  Soreness  and  tenderness  in  the  hollow 
of  the  heels,  somewhat  akin  to  chapped  hands.  A  similar  condition  some- 
times appear  behind  the  knee,  called  malanders  and  sometimes  in  front 
of  the  hock,  called  salanders. 


GLOSSARY  405 

Scirrhous  Cord.  An  unfavorable  result  of  castration  causing  an  in- 
durated swelling  at  the  end  of  the  divided  cord  and  an  enlargement  of 
the  scrotal  sack. 

Seedy  Toe.  This  disease  consists  in  a  separation  of  the  crust  of  the 
hoof  from  the  laminae  beneath,  the  diseased  laminae  being  unable  to 
maintain  union  between  the  structures.  It  may  occur  on  the  quarters  as 
well  as  the  toe  of  the  hoof. 

Shoe  Boils.     Same  as  capped  elbozv. 

Sidebones.  Ossification  of  the  lateral  wings  of  the  coffin  bone;  seldom 
found  on  the  hind  feet  but  more  common  on  the  fore  feet.  Best  detected 
by  feeling  the  top  of  the  foot,  on  each  side,  inside  the  line  of  the  coronet. 

Sitfast.  From  one  of  many  causes  a  swelling  or  saddle  tumor  occurs ; 
from  neglect  or  frequent  occurrrence-  it  becomes  hard  and  the  skin 
thickens  and  loses  its  vitality,  often  adhering  to  the  bottom  of  the  sore 
but  separated  from  the  surrounding  living  skin.  At  this  stage  a  saddle 
sore  becomes  a  sitfast. 

Spavin.  The  disease  may  be  blood,  bog  or  bone  spavin ;  all  are  located 
in  and  about  the  hock.  Blood  spavin  is  a  varicose  condition  of  the  vein 
in  front  and  to  the  inside  of  the  hock;  bog  spavin  is  a  distension  of  the 
bursa  of  the  hock  joint  and  is  found  in  front  directly  below  the  seat  of 
blood  spavin;  the  bone  spavin  may  be  slight  or  may  involve  the  articular 
faces  of  all  the  bones  of  the  hock  and  is  the  most  serious  form.  Some 
forms  of  spavin  are  very  difficult  of  detection. 

Splint.  A  bony  enlargement  on  the  cannon  bone,  usually  of  the  fore 
leg  only  and  on  the  inside,  between  the  knee  and  fetlock  joint.  Sometimes 
the  splint  forms  across  the  leg  on  the  rear  face  of  the  bone  and  between 
it  and  the  suspensory  ligament  or  tendon;  it  is  then  called  a  pegged 
splint. 

Springhalt.  A  spasmodic  muscular  contraction,  usually  affecting  one 
hind  leg,  but  sometimes  both,  causing  an  involuntary  jerking  up  of  the 
leg.  It  may  occur  only  at  intervals  and  at  particular  gaits. 

Thorough  Pin.  A  bursal  enlargement  at  the  upper  and  back  part  of 
the  hock,  beneath  the  extensor  tendon.  The  swelling  usually  appears  on 
both  sides  and  may  by  a  little  pressure  be  forced  from  one  side  to  the 
other. 

Thrush.  Disease  of  the  frog  of  the  foot  characterized  by  excessive 
secretion  of  unhealthy  matter. 

Windgalls.  Soft,  puffy  swellings  usually  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
fetlock  joints. 


: 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


RECEIVED 


FEB  2  3 '67 -8  AM 


LOAN  DEPT. 


LD  21A-60m-7,'66 
(G4427slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


f    ^""""^ 

fofSV  1  '1  1C 

—  —  —  — 

MAR 

eWJi 

T-lOOm-8,'34 

•    •  \ 


92 j 573 


if  £4  &> 
C* 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


